North-Eastern Rus': principalities, culture, history and development of the region. Northeastern Rus' As part of Kievan Rus
Serious changes occurred in the socio-economic development of Rus' in the 13th - 14th centuries. After the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in North-Eastern Rus', the economy was restored and handicraft production was revived again. There is a growth and increase in the economic importance of cities that did not play a serious role in the pre-Mongol period (Moscow, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma). Fortress construction is actively developing, and the construction of stone churches is being resumed. Agriculture and crafts are rapidly developing in North-Eastern Rus'. Old technologies are being improved and new ones are emerging.
Water wheels and water mills became widespread in Rus'. Parchment began to be actively replaced by paper. Salt production is developing. Centers for the production of books appear in large book centers and monasteries. Casting (bell production) is developing massively. Agriculture is developing somewhat more slowly than crafts. Slash-and-burn agriculture continues to be replaced by field arable land. New villages are being actively built. The number of domestic animals is increasing, which means the application of organic fertilizers to the fields is increasing
Gradually, the largest and strongest principalities emerged in Rus': Moscow, Tver, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan. The Vladimir principality was considered the center of Rus'; the Vladimir prince had a label (letter) from the Mongol khan. Moscow’s position especially strengthened under Ivan Kalita (the second son of Moscow Prince Daniil Alexandrovich), under him the following were annexed: Kolomna, Pereyaslavets, Mozhaisk. In 1327, an uprising against the Tatars broke out in Tver, Ivan Kalita helped suppress it and received the khan's label for the Great Reign. Thanks to Ivan Danilovich’s competent policy towards the Horde, the Tatar raids stopped, which also contributed to the strengthening of Moscow and Rus' as a whole. Ivan Kalita continued the line of Alexander Nevsky in that he maintained a lasting peace with the Tatars. He also made an alliance with the church. Moscow becomes the center of faith, since the Metropolitan moved to Moscow forever and left Vladimir (Peter). The Grand Duke received the right from the Horde to collect tribute himself, which had favorable consequences for the treasury of Moscow. Ivan Kalita also increased his holdings. New lands were bought and begged from the Khan of the Golden Horde. Galich, Uglich and Beloozero were annexed. Also, some princes voluntarily became part of the Moscow Principality. His descendants continued the same policy. Moscow slowly but surely became the center around which other principalities united.
In the 14th-15th centuries. Moscow became the basis for the unification of Rus' into a single state, the center of the constituent Russian nation. Already the Moscow princes Yuri Danilovich (grandson of Alexander Nevsky, reigned in 1303-1325) and Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) received from the khans labels for reign, which from that time was firmly held by the Moscow princes. Under Ivan Kalita, the metropolitans moved their residence from Vladimir to Moscow, and it became the political and spiritual center of the then Rus'. In the second half of the 14th century. Moscow led the fight against the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Moscow militia formed the main core of the Russian troops that defeated the Mongol-Tatar hordes of Mamai on the Kulikovo Field (1380) under the leadership of Dmitry Donskoy (prince in 1359-1389). In the 60s and 70s of the 14th century, intensification of civil strife within the Golden Horde occurred. Over two decades, up to two dozen khans appear and disappear. One of these, the strongest and cruelest, was Khan Mamai. He tried to collect tribute from Russian lands, despite the fact that Takhtamysh was the legitimate khan. The threat of a new invasion united the main forces of North-Eastern Rus' under the leadership of the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy. The sons of Olgerd, Andrei and Dmitry, who transferred to the service of the Moscow prince, took part in the campaign. Mamai's ally, Grand Duke Jagiello, was late to arrive to join the Horde army. The Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich did not join Mamai, who only formally entered into an alliance with the Golden Horde.
On September 6, the united Russian army approached the banks of the Don. So for the first time since 1223, since the battle on the Kalka River, the Russians went out into the steppe to meet the Horde. On the night of September 8, Russian troops, on the orders of Dmitry Ivanovich, crossed the Don.
The battle took place on September 8, 1380 on the bank of the right tributary of the river. Don. At first, the Horde pushed back the Russian regiment. Then they were attacked by an ambush regiment under the command of the Serpukhov prince. The Horde army could not withstand the onslaught of fresh Russian forces and fled. The battle turned into a pursuit of the enemy retreating in disorder. The population of Moscow heroically defended the city from the Tatar khans Tokhtamysh in 1382 and Edigei in 1408; in 1480 it demanded from Ivan 3 a decisive struggle against the hordes of Khan Akhmat, fortified the city and prepared for a siege. Moscow was a center of developed crafts, especially the production of metal products and weapons. Construction skills, icon and book making, etc. also achieved high development. Moscow was the largest trading city in Eastern Europe, as it was connected by waterways (Moscow River, Oka, Volga, etc.) with the Volga region, Central Asia, Transcaucasia and Persia. From the upper reaches of the Don began the journey along the Don, Azov and Black Seas to Constantinople. Merchants who traded with the Italian colonies in Crimea, in particular with the city of Surozh (Sudak), were called “guests-surozhans” in Moscow. Through the city of Dmitrov, Moscow was connected to the upper reaches of the Volga with waterways to Beloozero and further to Surozh. Overland roads connected Moscow with Novgorod and Smolensk. In terms of size, Moscow was one of the largest European cities.
128.61kb.
The strengthening of the Moscow principality led to a change in attitude towards the Tatars. The essence of this change was the transition from a policy of humility and obedience to the Horde to a policy of struggle against it, especially since strife and a decline in the importance of the khan’s power were observed in the Golden Horde at that time. For the period from 1360 to 1380. 14 khans were replaced in the Horde. But Mamai managed to temporarily eliminate the strife and concentrate power in his hands. He decided to call the Moscow prince to order and in 1378 he made a campaign against Rus', but on the Vozha River (a tributary of the Oka) the Tatar army was defeated. After this, both sides began to prepare for a decisive battle. To this end, Mamai entered into an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello and entered into secret relations with the Ryazan prince Oleg, dissatisfied with the supremacy of Moscow.
Despite the fact that neither Tver, nor Novgorod, nor Nizhny Novgorod took part in the fight against Mamai, Dmitry managed to create an unprecedented army, which numbered 100-150 thousand people. In this matter, the prince was provided with significant assistance by the clergy, first of all, the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, who, with the example of his life, “raised the fallen spirit of his native people, awakened in them confidence in themselves, in their strengths, and inspired faith in their future” (V. O. Klyuchevsky ). Saint Sergius not only blessed Dmitry Ivanovich for his feat, but also predicted the death of Mamai, exclaiming: “Go, sir, to the filthy Polovtsy, calling on God, and the Lord God will be your helper and intercessor!” The outcome of the battle was decided by the Battle of Kulikovo, which took place on the day of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary on September 8, 1380 on the right bank of the Don at the confluence of the Ne-Pryadva River. The battle went on for several hours. The Tatars trembled and ran. Chroniclers called the Battle of Kulikovo “Mamaev’s Massacre”, and the people gave Dmitry the honorary nickname “Donskoy”, with which he went down in history.
The Battle of Kulikovo had enormous political and national significance. “The event was,” said V. O. Klyuchevsky, “that the people, accustomed to tremble at the mere name of a Tatar, finally gathered their courage, stood up to the enslavers and not only found the courage to stand up, but also went to look for the Tatar hordes in the open steppe and there he fell on his enemies like an indestructible wall, burying them under his many thousands of bones.” There was great joy in Rus', but great was also sorrow, since the Russian army suffered huge losses.
The battle was won, but Dmitry Donskoy failed to free Rus' from the Mongol yoke. In 1382, the new khan of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, invaded the Russian regions and devastated Moscow. Dmitry had to agree to the resumption of tribute payments. And yet, the dependence of the Russian lands on the Horde became more and more nominal.
Dmitry Donskoy inherited the Vladimir Grand Duke's throne to his son Vasily I as a patrimony, without asking the khan's permission (label). Vasily I continued to gather Russian lands under the rule of the Moscow principality. His death marked the beginning of a long and acute political crisis that filled almost the entire reign of his son Vasily II Vasilyevich (1425 -1462). The fact is that Vasily Dmitrievich, before his death, blessed his 10-year-old son Vasily for the great reign. But after the death of Vasily I, his brother Yuri Dmitrievich refused to recognize the seniority of his nephew and entered into the struggle for the grand-ducal throne. This struggle, which after the death of Yuri was continued by his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, had the character of a feudal war, lasted more than 20 years and reached extreme cruelty on both sides.
The strife was complicated by the turbulent and complex relations between Vasily II and the Mongols. The Tatar Khan at the very beginning recognized him as the Grand Duke, but in 1445 a large detachment of one of the Tatar khans, Ulu-Makhmet, broke into Moscow possessions, defeated the Russian troops and took Vasily II prisoner. The Grand Duke was released from captivity for a huge ransom. Taking advantage of the discontent caused by the collection of funds for the ransom, Dmitry Shemyaka in 1446 captured Vasily Vasilyevich in the Trinity Monastery and blinded him (hence the nickname Dark), and in February of the same year occupied Moscow. However, the population of Moscow, especially the clergy led by Bishop Jonah of Ryazan, opposed Shemyaka. Dmitry Shemyaka was forced to liberate Vasily the Dark, who in December 1446 entered the capital of his principality.
In addition to political strife, the reign of Vasily II was also shaken by church unrest. In 1431, Moscow wanted to install Bishop Jonah as metropolitan, but the Patriarch of Constantinople installed the Greek Isidore as metropolitan in Rus'. In 1439, at a council in Florence, a union was concluded to unite the Orthodox and Catholic churches with recognition of the supreme power of the Pope. The Act of Union was also signed by the Russian Metropolitan Isidore. But when he returned to Russia as a Roman cardinal, the Grand Duke and the Russian clergy refused to recognize the union. Isidore was deposed, and in 1448, at a council of Russian bishops, Jonah was elected metropolitan for the first time without the knowledge of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Russian Church became autocephalous (independent).
Currently, some historians believe that during the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. Alternative options for centralization could still be realized. The unification of ancient Russian lands could be headed by the trading Novgorod or the northern Galician land with its developed industries and a significant number of free peasants, and possibly the principalities of Lithuania and Russia, where the Lithuanians played a unique role as “Varangians.” However, the victory in centralization remained with the Moscow Prince Vasily II, who used the Horde as allies. In the struggle for central power, Vasily II was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church.
The end of the feudal war meant the final victory of the unification trend around the Moscow principality. This trend was consolidated and became irreversible during the reigns of Ivan III and Vasily III.
The character of Ivan III Vasilyevich was formed in a difficult environment. The childhood and adolescence of the future first sovereign of all Rus' fell on the final, most dramatic stages of the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. In the seventh year of his life, the prince was engaged to the 4-year-old daughter of the Tver Grand Duke. A few years later, 10-year-old Maria Tverskaya turned into the Grand Duchess of Moscow. At that time, early marriages were not surprising. Dynastic and political interests were of decisive importance here. From childhood, Ivan Sh was taught to hike. The governors and warriors got used to looking at him as their future sovereign. Already at the age of 12, Ivan went on his first independent trip. Naturally, experienced commanders were actually at the head of the army. But formally, the leadership and personal participation of the prince became a step towards his political maturity. By his 17th birthday, he no longer formally bore the title of Grand Duke. The physical helplessness of the blind father emphasized the importance of his son. As Vasily II's closest assistant, he took a real part in the administration of the grand duchy.
7, 8. North-Eastern Rus' at the end of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries. Principality of Moscow under Ivan Kalita and Dmitry Donskoy
Gradually, the largest and strongest principalities emerged in Rus': Moscow, Tver, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan. The Vladimir principality was considered the center of Rus'; the Vladimir prince had a label (letter) from the Mongol khan. Moscow’s position especially strengthened under Ivan Kalita; under him, Kolomna, Pereyaslavets, and Mozhaisk were annexed. In 1327, an uprising against the Tatars broke out in Tver. Ivan Kalita helped suppress it and received the khan's label for the Great Reign. Under him, the Metropolitan moved from Vladimir to Moscow - it essentially became the ecclesiastical capital of Rus', this to some extent strengthened the authority of the prince. Thanks to Ivan Danilovich’s competent policy towards the Horde, the Tatar raids stopped, which also contributed to the strengthening of Moscow and Rus' as a whole. His descendants continued the same policy. Moscow slowly but surely became the center around which other principalities united.
In the 14th-15th centuries. Moscow became the basis for the unification of Rus' into a single state, the center of the constituent Russian nation. Already the Moscow princes Yuri Danilovich (reigned in 1303-1325) and Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) received from the khans labels for reign, which from that time was firmly held by the Moscow princes. Under Ivan Kalita, the metropolitans moved their residence from Vladimir to Moscow, and it became the political and spiritual center of the then Rus'. In the second half of the 14th century. Moscow led the fight against the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Moscow militia formed the main core of the Russian troops that defeated the Mongol-Tatar hordes of Mamai on the Kulikovo Field (1380) under the leadership of Dmitry Donskoy (prince in 1359-1389). The population of Moscow heroically defended the city from the Tatar khans Tokhtamysh in 1382 and Edigei in 1408; in 1480 it demanded from Ivan 3 a decisive struggle against the hordes of Khan Akhmat, fortified the city and prepared for a siege. Moscow was a center of developed crafts, especially the production of metal products and weapons. Construction skills, icon and book making, etc. also achieved high development. Moscow was the largest trading city in Eastern Europe, as it was connected by waterways (Moscow River, Oka, Volga, etc.) with the Volga region, Central Asia, Transcaucasia and Persia. From the upper reaches of the Don began the journey along the Don, Azov and Black Seas to Constantinople. Merchants who traded with the Italian colonies in Crimea, in particular with the city of Surozh (Sudak), were called “guests-surozhans” in Moscow. Through the city of Dmitrov, Moscow was connected to the upper reaches of the Volga with waterways to Beloozero and further to Surozh. Overland roads connected Moscow with Novgorod and Smolensk. In terms of size, Moscow was one of the largest European cities.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of Horde dominance over most Russian lands led to serious socio-political and economic changes in Rus'. Russian statehood was preserved only in North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir-Suzdal land), in the Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan lands. Western and southern Russian lands, weakened by the invasion, were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities - by the beginning of the 14th century, Volyn - in the middle of the 14th century, Kiev and Chernigov - in the 60s of the 14th century, Smolensk - at the beginning of the 15th century.
The old political system, in which independent principalities-lands were ruled by different branches of the Rurik princely family and a kind of hierarchy existed, ceased to exist. The principalities began to be considered by the Horde as uluses. The Russian princes recognized the supreme power of the khans of the Golden Horde, thus losing their sovereignty. The princes were required to travel to the Golden Horde and Mongolia to confirm their right to reign. Khans issued letters (“labels”) confirming the right of a particular prince to reign. Often labels were given to the prince who paid the most tribute and distributed the most bribes in the Horde. The essence of the grand ducal title itself has changed. In the Kiev period, the Grand Duke was the oldest prince in the family, a collector and defender of the lands. With the establishment of the dominance of the Mongols, the title began to give the right to collect the Horde output and designated the prince responsible for the Mongol-Tatar order in the Russian lands. The violation of the patrimonial principle of transfer of power in the principalities led to intense rivalry between the princes for the possession of great principalities, which was to the advantage of the Horde. Troubles and civil strife made it possible to maintain Mongol rule over Russia.
After Batu's invasion, despite some reduction in territory, the Vladimir Principality remained the largest in North-Eastern Rus'. The loss of sovereignty (the Horde khans issued labels to the Russian princes for the Great Reign of Vladimir, the prince was responsible for collecting the “exit”, etc.) did not stop the princely feuds, which led to the fragmentation of North-Eastern Rus': to the six appanage principalities that existed before, more were added seven. In each of them, a certain branch of the descendants of Vsevolod the Big Nest began to rule. In 1263-1271 The Vladimir table was occupied by Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy, brother of Alexander Nevsky. Then in 1272-1276. Vladimir was ruled by the younger Yaroslavich - Vasily Kostromskoy. Following this, a long internecine struggle for the Vladimir throne unfolded between the sons of Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry and Andrei.
Sometimes the borders of Russian principalities were changed by the Horde. In 1328, after the Anti-Horde Tver Uprising (1327), Uzbek Khan divided the territory of the Vladimir Principality between the Moscow and Suzdal princes, and in 1341 he separated the Nizhny Novgorod Principality from the Grand Duchy of Vladimir.
In 1362, Moscow Prince Dmitry Donskoy seized the Vladimir Grand Duchy and declared the Vladimir Grand Duchy his “fatherland” (inheritance, possession), uniting it into one with the Moscow Grand Duchy.
The rise of the Moscow principality began at the end of the 13th century. According to his father’s will, the first Moscow prince was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich (1263-1303). This ruler managed to somewhat expand the lands of his principality. In the early 90s. Daniel annexed Mozhaisk to the Rostov principality, and in 1300 he conquered Kolomna from Ryazan.
From 1304, Daniil's son Yuri Danilovich fought for the great reign of Vladimir with Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy, who received the label for the great reign in the Horde in 1305. The Moscow prince was supported by Metropolitan Peter of All Rus'. In 1317, Yuri achieved the receipt of a label for the grand-ducal throne from the hands of Uzbek Khan, and a year later, Yuri’s main enemy, Mikhail Tverskoy, was killed in the Horde. After the death of the latter in 1332, the label for the great reign was almost constantly in the hands of the Moscow princes.
Ivan Kalita managed to strengthen his influence in Novgorod, acquire labels in the Horde for appanage principalities with centers in Uglich, Galich and Beloozero. In addition, Ivan I bought villages in other principalities, which became strongholds for the “gathering” of Russian lands around Moscow. Caring about strengthening the principality, Kalita willingly accepted immigrants from other lands into his service. Kalita was the first to use the transfer of land (estate) as payment for service. Under this prince, a wooden fortress was erected in Moscow. During the reign of Ivan Kalita, the territory of the principality increased fourfold.
Ivan Kalita's policy of strengthening the Moscow principality was continued by his sons - Semyon Proud and Ivan II the Red. During the reign of these princes, the devastating raids of the Horde and Lithuanians ceased.
After the death of Ivan II the Red, his 9-year-old son Dmitry (1359-1389) became the prince of Moscow. At this time, the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich took possession of the label for the great reign. A sharp struggle developed between him and the group of Moscow boyars. On the side of Moscow was Metropolitan Alexy, who actually headed the Moscow government until Moscow finally won the victory in 1363. Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich continued the policy of strengthening the Moscow principality. In 1367, the white stone Moscow Kremlin was erected. In 1371, Moscow inflicted a strong defeat on the Ryazan Grand Duke Oleg. The struggle with Tver continued. When in 1371 Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy, having received the label for the great reign of Vladimir, tried to occupy Vladimir, Dmitry Ivanovich refused to obey the khan's will. In 1375, Mikhail Tverskoy again received a label to the Vladimir table. Then almost all the princes of North-Eastern Rus' opposed him, supporting the Moscow prince in his campaign against Tver. After a month-long siege, the city capitulated, according to the agreement concluded between the Moscow and Tver princes, Mikhail recognized Dmitry as his “eldest brother,” i.e. became in a subordinate position.
As a result of the internal political struggle in the northeastern Russian lands, the Moscow principality achieved a leading position in the “gathering” of Russian lands and became a real force capable of resisting the Horde and Lithuania. Since 1374, Dmitry Ivanovich stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde.
The reasons for the strengthening of the Moscow Principality were:
favorable economic and geographical location. Moscow was located on the busy trade route Baltic - Volga region - Central Asia, and the profitable grain trade brought considerable income to the princely treasury.
favorable strategic position. Moscow, which controlled the supply of grain to Novgorod from the Volga region, blocked trade routes in crisis situations, which made the Novgorodians more accommodating. Since the 14th century in Novgorod, princes controlled by Moscow were elected.
the seizure of the Great Reign of Vladimir, which gave Moscow economic (collection of “exit”) and political (in case of disobedience, Horde detachments were used against local princes) control over all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus'.
understanding by the Moscow princes of the special role of Orthodoxy during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Moscow princes maintained good relations with Metropolitan Peter. After the death of Peter, Kalita achieved his canonization. The residence of the metropolitans was soon in Moscow. Ivan Kalita built the first stone Moscow Cathedral of the Assumption of the Mother of God. Moscow turned into the religious center of North-Eastern Rus'.
exceptional pragmatism of the Moscow princes. They were among the first to cooperate closely with the Horde. This made it possible to subjugate almost all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' to Moscow and ensure the end of the Horde pogroms, as well as restrain the onslaught of Lithuania.
To territorially define the group of principalities in Rus' that settled between the Volga and Oka in the 9th-12th centuries, historians adopted the term “North-Eastern Rus'”. It meant lands located within Rostov, Suzdal, and Vladimir. Synonymous terms were also applicable, reflecting the unification of state entities in different years - “Rostov-Suzdal Principality”, “Vladimir-Suzdal Principality”, as well as “Grand Duchy of Vladimir”. In the second half of the 13th century, Rus', which was called Northeastern, actually ceased to exist - many events contributed to this.
Grand Dukes of Rostov
All three principalities of North-Eastern Rus' united the same lands; only the capitals and rulers changed over the years. The first city built in these areas was Rostov the Great; in chronicles, mentions of it date back to 862 AD. e. Before its foundation, the Merya and Ves tribes, related to the Finno-Ugrians, lived here. The Slavic tribes did not like this picture, and they - the Krivichi, Vyatichi, Ilmen Slovenes - began to actively populate these lands.
After the formation of Rostov, which was one of the five largest cities under the rule of the Kyiv prince Oleg, mentions of measures and weights began to appear less frequently in chronicles. For some time, Rostov was ruled by proteges of the Kyiv princes, but in 987 the principality was already ruled by Yaroslav the Wise, the son of Vladimir, the prince of Kyiv. Since 1010 - Boris Vladimirovich. Until 1125, when the capital was moved from Rostov to Suzdal, the principality passed from hand to hand either to the Kyiv rulers or had its own rulers. The most famous princes of Rostov - Vladimir Monomakh and Yuri Dolgoruky - did a lot to ensure that the development of North-Eastern Rus' led to the prosperity of these lands, but soon the same Dolgoruky moved the capital to Suzdal, where he ruled until 1149. But he erected numerous fortresses and cathedrals in the style of the same fortress structure with heavy proportions and squatness. Under Dolgoruky, writing and applied art developed.
Heritage of Rostov
The significance of Rostov was, however, quite significant for the history of those years. In the chronicles of 913-988. The expression “Rostov land” is often used - a territory rich in game, trades, crafts, wooden and stone architecture. In 991, one of the oldest dioceses in Rus' - Rostov - was formed here not by chance. At that time, the city was the center of the principality of North-Eastern Rus', conducted intensive trade with other settlements, artisans, builders, gunsmiths flocked to Rostov... All Russian princes tried to have a combat-ready army. Everywhere, especially in the lands separated from Kyiv, a new faith was promoted.
After Yuri Dolgoruky moved to Suzdal, Rostov was ruled for some time by Izyaslav Mstislavovich, but gradually the influence of the city finally faded away, and it began to be mentioned extremely rarely in chronicles. The center of the principality was moved to Suzdal for half a century.
The feudal nobility erected mansions for themselves, while artisans and peasants vegetated in wooden huts. Their homes were more like basements, and household items were mostly wooden. But in the rooms illuminated by torches, unsurpassed products, clothing, and luxury goods were born. Everything that the nobility wore on themselves and with which they decorated their towers was made by the hands of peasants and artisans. The wonderful culture of North-Eastern Rus' was created under the thatched roofs of wooden huts.
Rostov-Suzdal Principality
During that short period, while Suzdal was the center of North-Eastern Rus', only three princes managed to rule the principality. In addition to Yuri himself, his sons were Vasilko Yuryevich and Andrey Yuryevich, nicknamed Bogolyubsky, and then, after the capital was moved to Vladimir (in 1169), Mstislav Rostislavovich Bezokiy ruled in Suzdal for a year, but he did not play a special role in Russian history. All the princes of North-Eastern Rus' descended from the Rurikovichs, but not everyone turned out to be worthy of their family.
The new capital of the principality was somewhat younger than Rostov and was initially referred to as Suzhdal. It is believed that the city got its name from the words “to build” or “to create.” At first, after its formation, Suzdal was a fortified fortress and was ruled by princely governors. In the first years of the 12th century, there was some development of the city, while Rostov began to slowly but surely decline. And in 1125, as already mentioned, Yuri Dolgoruky left the once great Rostov.
Under Yuri, who is better known as the founder of Moscow, other important events took place. Thus, it was during the reign of Dolgoruky that the North-Eastern principalities forever separated from Kyiv. One of Yuri’s sons, Andrei Bogolyubsky, who sacredly loved his father’s estate and could not imagine himself without it, also played a huge role in this.
The fight against the boyars and the choice of the new capital of Rus'
The plans of Yuri Dolgoruky, in which he saw his eldest sons as rulers of the southern principalities, and his younger sons as rulers of Rostov and Suzdal, were never destined to come true. But their role in some ways was even more significant. So, Andrei declared himself as a wise and far-sighted ruler. The boyars on his council tried their best to restrain his wayward character, but even here Bogolyubsky showed his will, moving the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir, and then captured Kyiv itself in 1169.
However, the capital of Kievan Rus did not attract this man. Having won both the city and the title of “Grand Duke,” he did not stay in Kyiv, but installed his younger brother Gleb as governor. He also assigned an insignificant role to Rostov and Suzdal in the history of those years, since by that time Vladimir was the capital of North-Eastern Rus'. It was this city that Andrei chose as his residence in 1155, long before the conquest of Kyiv. From the southern principalities, where he ruled for some time, he brought to Vladimir the icon of the Vyshgorod Mother of God, which he greatly revered.
The choice of the capital was very successful: for almost two hundred years this city held the palm in Rus'. Rostov and Suzdal tried to regain their former greatness, but even after the death of Andrei, whose seniority as the Grand Duke was recognized in almost all Russian lands, except perhaps Chernigov and Galich, they failed.
Civil strife
After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the people of Suzdal and Rostov turned to the sons of Rostislav Yuryevich - Yaropolk and Mstislav - in the hope that their rule would return the cities to their former glory, but the long-awaited unification of North-Eastern Rus' did not come.
Vladimir was ruled by the younger sons of Yuri Dolgoruky - Mikhalko and Vsevolod. By that time, the new capital had significantly strengthened its importance. Andrei did a lot for this: he successfully developed construction, during the years of his reign the famous Assumption Cathedral was erected, he even sought the establishment of a separate metropolis in his principality, in order to separate himself from Kyiv in this too.
North-Eastern Rus' under the rule of Bogolyubsky became the center of the unification of Russian lands, and subsequently the core of the great Russian state. After the death of Andrei, the Smolensk and Ryazan princes Mstislav and Yaropolk, the children of one of the sons of Dolgoruky Rostislav, tried to seize power in Vladimir, but their uncles Mikhail and Vsevolod were stronger. In addition, their support from the Prince of Chernigov lasted more than three years, after which Vladimir secured the status of the capital city of North-Eastern Rus', leaving both Suzdal and Rostov as subordinate principalities.
From Kyiv to Moscow
By that time, the North-Eastern lands of Rus' consisted of many cities and towns. Thus, the new capital was founded in 990 by Vladimir Svyatoslavovich as Vladimir-on-Klyazma. About twenty years after its founding, the city, part of the Rostov-Suzdal principality, did not arouse much interest among the ruling princes (until 1108). At this time, another prince, Vladimir Monomakh, began strengthening it. He gave the city the status of a stronghold of North-Eastern Rus'.
No one could have imagined that this small settlement would eventually become the capital city of Russian lands. Many more years passed before Andrei turned his attention to it and moved the capital of his principality there, which would remain so for almost another two hundred years.
From the moment the great princes began to be called Vladimir, and not Kyiv, it lost its key role, but interest in it did not disappear among the princes. Everyone considered it an honor to rule Kiev. But from the middle of the 14th century, the once outlying city of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - Moscow - gradually but surely began to rise. Vladimir, like Rostov and then Suzdal in its time, is losing its influence. This was greatly facilitated by the move of Metropolitan Peter to Belokamennaya in 1328. The princes of North-Eastern Rus' fought among themselves, and the Moscow and Tver rulers tried in every possible way to win the advantage of the main city of the Russian lands from Vladimir.
The end of the 14th century was marked by the fact that the local owners received the privilege of being called the Grand Dukes of Moscow, so the advantage of Moscow over other cities became obvious. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy was the last to bear this title, after him all the rulers of Rus' were styled the Grand Dukes of Moscow. Thus ended the development of North-Eastern Rus' as an independent and even dominant principality.
Fragmentation of the once powerful principality
After the Metropolitan moved to Moscow, the Principality of Vladimir was divided. Vladimir was transferred to the Suzdal prince Alexander Vasilyevich, Veliky Novgorod and Kostroma were taken under the rule of the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita. Yuri Dolgoruky also dreamed of realizing the unification of North-Eastern Rus' with Veliky Novgorod - in the end, this happened, but not for long.
After the death of the Suzdal prince Alexander Vasilyevich, in 1331, his lands passed to the princes of Moscow. And 10 years later, in 1341, the territory of the former North-Eastern Rus' was again subject to redistribution: Nizhny Novgorod passed to Suzdal, like Gorodets, while the Vladimir principality forever remained with the Moscow rulers, who by that time, as already mentioned, also wore title of the Great. This is how the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal principality arose.
The campaign against North-Eastern Rus' by princes from the south and center of the country, their belligerence, contributed little to the development of culture and the arts. Nevertheless, new temples were erected everywhere, in the design of which the best techniques of decorative and applied art were used. A national school of icon painting was created with the bright colorful ornaments characteristic of that time in combination with Byzantine painting.
Seizure of Russian lands by Mongol-Tatars
Internecine wars brought a lot of misfortune to the peoples of Rus', and the princes constantly fought among themselves, but a more terrible disaster came with the Mongol-Tatars in February 1238. All of North-Eastern Rus' (the cities of Rostov, Yaroslavl, Moscow, Vladimir, Suzdal, Uglich, Tver) was not just devastated - it was practically burned to the ground. The army of Vladimir was defeated by a detachment of the temnik Burundai, the prince himself died, and his brother Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was forced to submit to the Horde in everything. The Mongol-Tatars only formally recognized him as the eldest over all the Russian princes; in fact, they were in charge of everything. In the complete defeat of Rus', only
In 1259, Alexander Nevsky conducted a census in Novgorod, developed his strategy of government and strengthened his position in every possible way. Three years later, tax collectors were killed in Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Pereyaslavl and Vladimir, North-Eastern Rus' again froze in anticipation of raid and ruin. This punitive measure was avoided - Alexander Nevsky personally went to the Horde and managed to prevent trouble, but died on the way back. This happened in 1263. Only through his efforts was it possible to maintain some integrity of the Vladimir principality; after the death of Alexander, it fell apart into independent fiefs.
Liberation of Rus' from the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars, revival of crafts and development of culture
Those were terrible years... On the one hand, there was an invasion of North-Eastern Rus', on the other, continuous skirmishes between the surviving principalities for possession of new lands. Everyone suffered: both rulers and their subjects. Liberation from the Mongol khans came only in 1362. The Russian-Lithuanian army under the command of Prince Olgerd defeated the Mongol-Tatars, forever displacing these warlike nomads from the Vladimir-Suzdal region, Muscovy, Pskov region and Novgorod region.
The years spent under the enemy's yoke had catastrophic consequences: the culture of North-Eastern Rus' fell into complete decline. The destruction of cities, the destruction of temples, the extermination of a significant part of the population and, as a consequence, the loss of certain types of crafts. The cultural and commercial development of the state stopped for two and a half centuries. Many monuments of wooden and stone architecture perished in the fire or were taken to the Horde. Many technical techniques of construction, plumbing and other crafts were lost. Many written monuments disappeared without a trace, chronicle writing, applied art, and painting fell into complete decline. It took almost half a century to restore what little was saved. But the development of new types of crafts proceeded rapidly.
Unity of cultures and lands
After liberation from the Yoke, more and more Russian princes came to a difficult decision for them and advocated the unification of their possessions into a single state. The Novgorod and Pskov lands became centers of revival and love of freedom and Russian culture. It was here that the working population began to flock from the southern and central regions, bringing with them the old traditions of their culture, writing, and architecture. Of great importance in the unification of Russian lands and the revival of culture was the influence where many ancient documents, books, and works of art were preserved.
The construction of cities and temples, as well as defensive structures, began. Tver became perhaps the first city in North-Eastern Rus' where stone construction began. We are talking about the construction of the Church of the Transfiguration in the style of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. In each city, along with defensive structures, churches and monasteries were built: Savior on Ilna, Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki, Vasily on Gorka in Pskov, Epiphany in Zapskovye and many others. The history of North-Eastern Rus' is reflected and continued in these buildings.
Painting was revived by Daniil Cherny and Andrei Rublev, famous Russian icon painters. Jewelry craftsmen recreated lost shrines, many artisans worked to restore the technique of creating national household items, jewelry, and clothing. Much from those centuries has survived to this day.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused irreparable damage to Russian culture. From the beginning of the 14th century. she is reborn.
Literature
1. One of the most common genres is becoming historical story, which intricately combined historical facts with literary fiction. The authors of the works often used hyperbolization (exaggeration). Such stories as “About Shchelkan Dudentievich”, “About the ruin of Ryazan by Batu” and others have become widespread. The works are imbued with the spirit of optimism and patriotism, which inspired Russian culture after the glorious victory in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The famous historical stories “The Legend of The Massacre of Mamayev" and "Zadonshchina".
2. Another literary genre was also very popular - “walking” – descriptions of travel to distant countries. For example, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in “Walking across Three Seas” (dating to the third quarter of the 15th century) described his long journey to India.
3. Genre hagiographies (lives of saints) in Rus' it also became widespread. It is characteristic that the style of “weaving words” was borrowed from Byzantine and Bulgarian literature, which implied pomp and pomp. In particular, the lives of Sergius of Radonezh and Stephen of Perm, written by Epiphanius the Wise (early 15th century), are in this style.
4. Evolved chronicle: many chronicles, including one of the earlier ones, Laurentian (1370s), have survived to this day in the original. In 1442, the “Russian Chronograph” began to be created - a description of world history, which was compiled by Pachomius Logofet.
5. During the denunciation of heresy, the Novgorod priest Gennady Gonzov at the end of the 15th century. made up The first Russian codex of the Bible. From the same time, polemical treatises appeared from opponents of intra-church groups: the “Osifites” (Joseph Volotsky) and the “non-possessors” (Nil Sorsky).
Architecture
In Novgorod a large number of small stone churches were built (Kovalevskaya, Spasa on Ilyin Street, Volotovskaya, etc.).
In the Moscow Principality the first stone buildings were churches in Zvenigorod and Zagorsk, the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. In 1367, the first white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected. In the second half of the 15th century. the Kremlin was significantly rebuilt: new walls were erected, beautiful cathedrals were built: Assumption (1476–1479), architect - Italian Aristotle Fiorovanti; Blagoveshchensky (1484–1489), built by Pskov craftsmen; Arkhangelsky (1505–1509). The Chamber of Facets (1487–1491) was built for ceremonial receptions.
Painting
In the second half of the XIV - first half of the XV centuries. created by two great Russian painters - Feofan the Greek And Andrey Rublev. They achieved perfection in icon painting. Theophanes the Greek was the author of frescoes in the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, and participated in the painting of the Archangel Cathedral.
For style of Theophanes the Greek Characteristic in icon painting:
1) choice of bright, rich colors;
2) emotionality;
3) expression.
The works of Andrei Rublev are characterized by:
1) high spiritual pathos;
2) the insight and humanity of the images.
25. “Code of Law” 1497
In Moscow, under Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich, in 1497, a new legislative code was drawn up and approved, which went down in Russian history under the name Code of Laws of 1497.
Code of laws of 1497- this is the first collection of laws of a single centralized Russian state. It reflected the norms of civil, criminal and other types of law. In particular, the rules for conducting court hearings in counties were changed. The chief judges were the princely governors. But in order for the courts to be conducted fairly, the court hearings had to be monitored by representatives of local residents - elders and elected “best people”. Thus, the Code of Laws showed that the Grand Duke of Moscow respects ancient veche traditions and relies not only on his government officials, but also takes into account popular opinion.
The Code of Law regulated property relations and the position of various groups of urban and rural populations. In particular, the Code of Law introduced for the first time a restriction on the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another. Typically, such transitions occurred after the end of field work: if the peasant did not like living with one owner, he, in accordance with ancient custom, could go to another. But in different parts of the country the rules for the transition were different. Now a single deadline for the transfer of peasants was established for all - a week before and a week after the autumn holiday of St. George the Victorious (November 26, according to the new style - December 9). In Rus', St. George has been called Yuri since ancient times, which is why this autumn day was called Yuri’s Day. In accordance with the norms of the Code of Laws, the peasant had to pay the previous owner a certain amount of money for his transition. This payment was called “elderly”, and in different areas it ranged from half a ruble to a ruble. Modern scientists believe that the introduction of St. George's Day marked the beginning of the legislative registration of serfdom.
26. The state-political system of Russia in the second half of the 15th and early 16th centuries. Ivan 111 "Sovereign of All Rus'".
The political system of the Russian state at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. developed towards strengthening centralization and further increasing the power of the Moscow sovereign. The latter was an inevitable consequence of the completion of the process of gathering Great Russian lands by Moscow into a single state and the transformation of the Grand Duke of Moscow into the political leader of the entire Russian nation. Awareness of this situation was expressed in Ivan III’s acceptance of the title “Sovereign of All Rus'.”
He consistently pursues the idea of the divine origin of his power /title: “John, by the grace of God, Sovereign...”/. The procedure for occupying the throne, established by Ivan III, served to confirm this idea - through the solemn church rite of “wedding” with a grand-ducal crown. An important role in the rise of monarchical power was played by the marriage of Ivan III with the last Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologus /1472/ Thus, the Russian sovereign seemed to act as the political successor of the Byzantine emperors. The titles “tsar” and “autocrat” began to be introduced into use. The latter originally meant an independent sovereign, not subject to any external authority. However, already Ivan III begins to interpret the title of “Autocrat” as meaning the unlimited power of the monarch.
The factor that weakened the grand ducal power was the incompleteness of the process of centralization of the country, primarily the lack of an extensive state administrative apparatus. There were only 2 national departments:
“Palace” - was in charge of the lands of the Grand Duke and resolved land disputes;
"Treasury" is the state office that managed finances and foreign policy.
The administration of individual territories was carried out by Moscow through governors who appointed Moscow boyars. They were called “feeders” because they were completely supported by the local population - they “fed” at their expense. “Feeding” was given for a period of one to three years.
From the end of the 15th century. The Boyar Duma acquires a permanent character. However, its composition was small - approx. There were 20 people, and the possibilities were limited - it was only an advisory body with which the king only discussed and coordinated his proposals. This situation did not satisfy the boyars, who sought to counteract the autocratic aspirations of the Moscow sovereigns. The boyars were not opposed to the unity of the country, but their political ideal was a limited monarchy, in which the power of the tsar would be combined with the power of the boyar council, performing government functions.
Among the boyar nobility there were also supporters of an estate-representative monarchy. Their ideologist, Prince Kurbsky, allowed the people to participate in governing the country through the all-class Zemsky Sobor.
From the end of the 15th century. A unified executive power begins to take shape in the form of new governing bodies - “orders”. The orders grew out of temporary instructions given to the boyars. To carry out assignments / orders / the boyar selected competent officials - “deacons”, created a special public place - “izba”.
The clerks, as the real executors of the plans of the grand ducal power, began to play an increasingly significant role in public administration. Specializing in the implementation of certain assignments (financial, diplomatic, military), clerks prepared the creation of governing bodies with a functional, rather than territorial, distribution of affairs.
