Years of joining the Russian empire. Russian empire. Internal opponents of the Russian Empire

There were many empires in the world that were famous for their wealth, luxurious palaces and temples, conquests and culture. Among the greatest of them are such powerful states as the Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Holy Roman, Ottoman, British empires.

Russia on the historical map of the world

The empires of the world collapsed, disintegrated, and in their place separate independent states were formed. A similar fate was not spared on the Russian Empire, which existed for 196 years, from 1721 to 1917.

It all started with the Moscow principality, which, thanks to the conquests of princes and tsars, grew at the expense of new lands in the west and east. The victorious wars allowed Russia to take possession of important territories, which opened the way for the country to the Baltic and Black Seas.

Russia became an empire in 1721, when Tsar Peter the Great accepted the imperial title by decision of the Senate.

Territory and composition of the Russian Empire

In terms of the size and length of its possessions, Russia ranked second in the world, second only to the British Empire, which possessed numerous colonies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the territory Russian Empire included:

• 78 provinces + 8 Finnish;
• 21 areas;
• 2 districts.

Provinces consisted of counties, the latter were divided into camps and sections. The following administrative-territorial administration existed in the empire:

Many lands annexed to the Russian Empire voluntarily, and some as a result of campaigns of conquest. The territories that became part of it at their own request were:

• Georgia;
• Armenia;
• Abkhazia;
• Tyva Republic;
• Ossetia;
• Ingushetia;
• Ukraine.

In the course of the foreign colonial policy of Catherine II, the Kuril Islands, Chukotka, Crimea, Kabarda (Kabardino-Balkaria), Belarus and the Baltic States became part of the Russian Empire. Part of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states went to Russia after the division of the Commonwealth (modern Poland).

Russian Empire Square

The territory of the state stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Black Sea and from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, occupying two continents - Europe and Asia. In 1914, before the First World War, the area of ​​the Russian Empire was 69,245 square meters. kilometers, and the length of its borders was as follows:

Let's stop and talk about certain territories of the Russian Empire.

Grand Duchy of Finland

Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, after a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which it ceded this territory. The capital of the Russian Empire was now covered with new lands that defended St. Petersburg from the north.

When Finland became part of the Russian Empire, she retained great autonomy, despite Russian absolutism and autocracy. It had its own constitution, according to which the power in the principality was divided into executive and legislative. The legislative body was the Sejm. The executive power belonged to the Imperial Finnish Senate, it consisted of eleven people elected by the Sejm. Finland had its own currency - the Finnish marks, and in 1878 acquired the right to have a small army.

Finland, as part of the Russian Empire, was famous for the coastal city of Helsingfors, where not only the Russian intelligentsia loved to rest, but also the reigning house of the Romanovs. This city, which is now called Helsinki, was chosen by many Russian people who gladly rested in resorts and rented summer cottages from local residents.

After the strikes of 1917 and thanks to the February Revolution, the independence of Finland was proclaimed, and she seceded from Russia.

Accession of Ukraine to Russia

Right-bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II. For a start, the Russian empress destroyed the hetmanate, and then the Zaporozhye Sich. In 1795, Rzeczpospolita was finally divided, and its lands were transferred to Germany, Austria and Russia. Thus, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire.

After the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. Catherine the Great annexed the territory of modern Dnepropetrovsk, Kherson, Odessa, Nikolaev, Lugansk and Zaporozhye regions. As for the Left-Bank Ukraine, it voluntarily became part of Russia in 1654. The Ukrainians were fleeing the social and religious repression of the Poles and asked for help from the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Together with Bohdan Khmelnitsky, he signed the Pereyaslavl Treaty, according to which the Left-Bank Ukraine became part of the Muscovy with the rights of autonomy. Not only Cossacks participated in the Rada, but also ordinary people who made this decision.

Crimea - the pearl of Russia

The Crimean Peninsula was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1783. On July 9, the famous Manifesto was read at the Ak-Kai rock, and the Crimean Tatars expressed their consent to become subjects of Russia. First, noble Murzas, and then ordinary inhabitants of the peninsula, took an oath of allegiance to the Russian Empire. After that, festivities, games and festivities began. Crimea became part of the Russian Empire after the successful military campaign of Prince Potemkin.

This was preceded by difficult times. The coast of Crimea and the Kuban from the end of the 15th century were the possessions of the Turks and Crimean Tatars. During the wars with the Russian Empire, the latter gained a certain independence from Turkey. The rulers of the Crimea were replaced quickly, and some occupied the throne two or three times.

Russian soldiers more than once suppressed revolts organized by the Turks. The last khan of Crimea, Shahin-Girey, dreamed of making the peninsula a European power, he wanted to carry out a military reform, but no one wanted to support his undertakings. Taking advantage of the confusion, Prince Potemkin recommended to Catherine the Great that Crimea be included in the Russian Empire through a military campaign. The Empress agreed, but on one condition that the people themselves express their consent. Russian troops treated the inhabitants of Crimea peacefully, showed kindness and care to them. Shahin-Girey abdicated power, and the Tatars were guaranteed freedom to practice religion and observe local traditions.

The easternmost edge of the empire

The development of Alaska by the Russians began in 1648. Semyon Dezhnev, a Cossack and traveler, led an expedition, reaching Anadyr in Chukotka. Upon learning of this, Peter I sent Bering to check this information, but the famous navigator did not confirm Dezhnev's facts - the fog hid the coast of Alaska from his team.

It was only in 1732 that the crew of the Saint Gabriel ship landed in Alaska for the first time, and in 1741 Bering studied the coast of both it and the Aleutian Islands in detail. Gradually, the exploration of the new area began, merchants sailed and formed settlements, built a capital and named it Sitka. Alaska, as part of the Russian Empire, was still famous not for gold, but for a fur-bearing animal. Here furs of various animals were mined, which were in demand both in Russia and in Europe.

Under Paul I, the Russian-American Company was organized, which had the following powers:

• she ruled Alaska;
• could organize an armed army and ships;
• have your own flag.

Russian colonialists found mutual language with the local people - Aleuts. The priests learned their language and translated the Bible. The Aleuts were baptized, the girls willingly married Russian men and wore traditional Russian clothes. With another tribe - Koloshi, the Russians never made friends. It was a warlike and very cruel tribe that practiced cannibalism.

Why was Alaska sold?

These vast territories were sold to the United States for $ 7.2 million. The agreement was signed in the US capital - Washington. Recently, the prerequisites for the sale of Alaska are different.

Some say that the reason for the sale was the human factor and the reduction in the number of sable and other fur-bearing animals. There were very few Russians living in Alaska, their number was 1000 people. Others hypothesize that Alexander II was afraid of losing the eastern colonies, therefore, before it was too late, he decided to sell Alaska for the price that was offered.

Most researchers agree that the Russian Empire decided to get rid of Alaska because there were no human resources to cope with the development of such distant lands. The government was thinking about whether to sell the Ussuri region, which was sparsely populated and poorly managed. However, the hot heads cooled down, and Primorye remained a part of Russia.

The Russian Empire existed from 1721 to 1917. It occupied a huge territory, almost 36 million square kilometers, from Eastern Europe to Asia (inclusive). The empire had an autocratic type of government and its capital was the city of St. Petersburg. The population of the empire was over 170 million people and included over a hundred different ethnic groups. The largest of them are Christians, Muslims and Jews.

The Russian Empire originated during the reign of Peter the Great (1694-1725) after Russia won the Great Northern War (1700-1721). In this war, Russia fought against the Swedish and Polish empires.

Most of the population of Russia at that time consisted of serfs. Russian rulers tried to reform the system by renouncing slavery, following the example of Western states. This led to the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The cancellation took place during the reign of Alexander II (1855-1881). The liberation of the peasants did not lead to an improvement in their lives. Disagreements and intrigues in the ruling circles grew and as a result, this led to the fact that Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne on March 15, 1917, during.

Absolute dominance over its neighbors in Europe and Asia

Russian offensive in East Prussia and Austria-Hungary was to divert German troops from the western front. In the course of the implementation of this plan, the Russian Empire suffered catastrophic losses and a number of defeats in 1914-1915. Affected by the incompetence of the military leadership and serious problems within the country. The losses incurred during the war caused riots, especially among the proletariat, peasantry and soldiers.

This led to massive protests in 1916. The split in the government grew, and the opposition Progressive Bloc was formed. Regardless of all attempts by the government to maintain order and monarchy, demonstrators in the capital called for the abolition of autocracy. was forced to abdicate on March 15, thereby ending the existence of the Russian Empire. Seven months later, the Bolshevik Revolution began and the Soviet Union arose.

What was the Russian Empire like on the eve of World War? Here it is necessary to move away from two myths - the Soviet one, when “ tsarist Russia"Show as a backward country with a downtrodden people, and" Novorossiysk "- the essence of this legend can be expressed in the title of the documentary-publicistic film of the Soviet and Russian director Stanislav Govorukhin" Russia We Lost "(1992). This is an idealized view of the Russian Empire, which was destroyed by the scoundrels of the Bolsheviks.

The Russian empire really had enormous potential and could, with appropriate global, foreign and domestic policies, become a world leader, due to its human reserves (the third largest population on the planet, after China and India), natural resources, creativity and military power. But there were also powerful, deep contradictions, which ultimately destroyed the building of the empire. If these internal prerequisites were not present, the subversive activities of the financial international, Western special services, freemasons, liberals, socialist revolutionaries, nationalists and other enemies of Russia would not have been successful.

The cornerstones of the Russian Empire were: Orthodoxy, which preserved the foundations of Christianity as the basis of the system of upbringing and education; autocracy (autocracy) as the basis of the state system; Russian national spirit, which was the basis for the unity of a vast territory, the core of the empire, at the same time capable of mutually beneficial cooperation with other races, nationalities and religions. But these three foundations were largely undermined: Orthodoxy for the most part became a formality, having lost its fiery spirit of righteousness, the essence of "Glory of Truth, Righteousness" was lost behind the rituals. The Russian national spirit was eroded by the pressure of Westernism, as a result, a split of the people occurred - the elite (for the most part) adopted European culture, for them Paris and the Cote d'Azur became closer than Ryazan or Pskov, and Marx and Voltaire are more interesting than Pushkin or Lomonosov.

Economic development of Russia of that time gives rise to an ambiguous impression, on the one hand, the successes were high. The empire experienced three economic booms - the first was under Alexander II, the second in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (it was associated with the stability of the era of Emperor Alexander III and a number of positive innovations such as the introduction of protectionist tariffs and the wine monopoly, the policy of encouraging entrepreneurship, etc.), the third the rise took place in 1907-1913 and, interestingly, continued even during the First World War and was associated with the activities of P.A. Stolypin and V.N. Kokovtsev (Minister of Finance 1906-1914, Chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1911-1914 years). Average annual growth rates in the recent period have been 5-8%. This rise was even called the "Russian miracle", which happened much earlier than the German or Japanese.

Count Vladimir Nikolaevich Kokovtsov, Russian statesman, chairman of the Council of Ministers of Russia in 1911-1914.

In the 13 pre-war years, the volume of industrial production has tripled. New industries grew especially rapidly - chemical production, oil production, rapid growth was recorded in coal production. Railways were built: from 1891 to 1916, the Trans-Siberian Railway (Transsib, or the Great Siberian Route) was built, it connected Moscow and the largest Siberian and Far Eastern industrial centers of the empire, in fact, tightening Russia with an iron belt. It was the longest railway in the world - more than 9 thousand km. The Sino-Eastern Railway (CER), built in 1897-1903, became the southern branch of the Transsib. It belonged to the Russian state and was served by the subjects of the empire. It passed through the territory of Manchuria and connected Chita with Vladivostok and Port Arthur.

In the field of light, textile (textiles were exported to China and Persia), the food industry, Russia fully supported itself and exported goods to the external market. A more negative situation was in the field of mechanical engineering - Russia itself produced 63% of equipment and means of production.

Western economists and politicians were deeply concerned about the rapid development of Russia. In 1913, the Russian Empire came out on top in the world, ahead of the United States, in terms of industrial production growth. Russia was one of the five strongest economic powers, second only to Great Britain and Germany, catching up with France and the United States. According to the calculations of French economists, if Russia kept the pace of such development, despite the fact that other powers retained the same rate of development, then by the middle of the 20th century the Russian state would peacefully, in an evolutionary way, dominate the world in financial and economic terms, that is, and politically, becoming the number one superpower.

And this despite the fact that comparing Russia and the British and French colonial empires is somewhat incorrect - Paris and London siphoned off funds from the colonies, the subordinate territories developed one-sidedly, only in their own interests. From overseas possessions, the British and French received a huge amount of cheap raw materials. The Russian Empire developed in different conditions - the outskirts were considered Russian and they tried to develop them at the same level as the Great Russian, Little Russian provinces. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the natural and climatic conditions of Russia - about this there is an excellent book by A.P. Parshev "Why Russia is not America." It is much more difficult to develop a high civilization in such conditions than in Europe, the USA or the countries of South Asia, Latin America and Africa.

It is necessary to take into account the fact that, although the colonies worked for France and England, researchers forget to include the population of Egypt, India, Sudan, Burma and the mass of other holdings in gross per capita indicators, take into account their standard of living, welfare, education, and other factors. ... And without colonies, the level of development of the "metropolises" really turned out to be high.

Relatively high financial indebtedness posed a certain danger to Russia. Although it is not worth “going too far” and considering that the empire was almost an “appendage of Western countries”. The total volume of foreign investment ranged from 9 to 14%, in principle, not much higher than in Western countries. We must take into account the fact that Russia developed according to the capitalist scheme, was not a socialist state, therefore it played the same games as Western countries. By 1914, Russia's external debt reached 8 billion francs (2.9 billion rubles), and the external debt of the United States reached 3 billion dollars (about 6 billion rubles), the States were in debts at that time, reversing the trend only due to the First World War ...

It was believed that borrowing was more profitable, the money went to the development of the country, large infrastructure projects or stabilization of the financial situation in 1905-1906 (defeat in the war, the beginning of the revolution in the country). By the beginning of the First World War, the gold reserve of the Russian Empire was the largest in the world and amounted to 1 billion 695 million rubles.

The population of the empire was 160 million people and was growing rapidly, the birth rate was high - 45.5 children per 1,000 inhabitants annually. The myth of the general illiteracy and low culture of the Russian people at the beginning of the 20th century also raises doubts. Western researchers, speaking about 30% literate, mainly took into account graduates of universities, gymnasiums, real schools, rural schools. Parish schools, which covered a significant part of the population, were not taken seriously in the West, believing that they did not give "real education". Again, one must take into account the factor of the general illiteracy of the inhabitants of the European colonies, which were legally and de facto part of European countries. In addition, in 1912 the Russian Empire adopted a law on universal primary education and primary schools. If it were not for the war and the collapse of the empire, the empire would have repeated what the Bolsheviks did - illiteracy would have been completely eliminated. Therefore, complete illiteracy remained only among foreigners (a category of subjects within the framework of the law of the Russian Empire, which did not carry a derogatory meaning) in a number of regions of the empire, in the North Caucasus, Central Asia, Siberia and The far north.

In addition, imperial gymnasiums and real schools (secondary education) provided a level of knowledge that was approximately equal to the volume of programs of most modern universities. And a person who graduated from a higher educational institution in Russia differed for the better in terms of knowledge than the majority of current university graduates. The culture of Russia experienced the "Silver Years" - successes were noted in poetry, literature, music, science, etc.

Parliamentary monarchy. You need to know that by the beginning of the 20th century Russia was no longer an absolute monarchy, in the full sense of this concept. In 1864, in the course of the judicial reform (the Judicial Charter was introduced), the power of the emperor was actually limited. In addition, the country began to implement zemstvo self-government, which was in charge of issues of improvement, health care, education, social protection, etc. The Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and the reforms of 1907 established a regime of parliamentary constitutional monarchy in the country.

Therefore, the citizens of the empire possessed approximately the same amount of rights and freedoms as the inhabitants of other great powers. Western "democracy" at the beginning of the 20th century was very different from the modern one. The right to vote was not universal, most of the population did not have this privilege, their rights were limited by age, property, sex, nationality, racial, etc. qualifications.

In Russia, since 1905, all parties have been allowed, except for those who conducted terrorist activities, which is quite normal. Fell into The State Duma both the Bolsheviks and the Socialist-Revolutionaries. Strikes were suppressed in all countries (and are still being suppressed), and often in the West, the actions of the authorities were more severe. In Russia, preliminary censorship was abolished, which was used by numerous opponents of the regime, from liberal Freemasons to leftists and nationalists. There was only punitive censorship - a publication could be fined or closed for violating the law (such censorship was widespread and existed not only in Russia). Therefore, one should know that the myth of the "prison of nations", where the tsar is the "chief overseer", was invented by the Western press and then supported in Soviet historiography.

Foreign policy

Petersburg tried to pursue a peaceful policy. At the two Hague conferences (1899 and 1907), which were convened at the initiative of Russia, they adopted international conventions on the laws and customs of war, included in the complex of norms of world humanitarian law.

In 1899, 26 countries took part in it, adopted 3 conventions: 1) On the peaceful solution of international conflicts; 2) On the laws and customs of land war; 3) On the application to naval warfare of the principles of the Geneva Convention (of August 10, 1864). At the same time, the use of shells and explosives from balloons and ships, shells with asphyxiant and harmful gases, explosive bullets was banned.

In 1907, 43 states took part in it, they already adopted 13 conventions, including on the peaceful solution of world conflicts, on the limitation of the use of force in the recovery of contractual debt obligations, on the laws and customs of war on land, etc.

After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871-1871, Russia several times deterred Germany from a new attack on the French state. Petersburg tried to resolve disputes on the Balkan Peninsula by political and diplomatic means, without bringing matters to war, even to the detriment of its strategic interests. During the two Balkan wars (1912-1913), because of the peace-loving policy, all the countries of this region, even the Serbs, were dissatisfied with Russia.

Although the society was "infected" with Francophilia and Pan-Slavism, the Russian public did not want a big war in Europe. The nobility and the intelligentsia considered Paris the cultural center of the world. They considered it their sacred duty to intercede for "brothers-Slavs" or "brothers in faith", although there were many examples when these "brothers" entered into alliances with Western countries and acted against Russia's interests.

Germany for a long time, up to 1910-1912, was not perceived as an enemy in Russia. They did not want to fight the Germans, this war did not benefit Russia, but it could bring a lot of harm (as it happened).

But Paris and London had to confront the "Russian giant" with the "Teutons". The British were afraid of the growth of the navy of the German Empire, the German dreadnoughts could seriously change the balance of power in the world. It was the fleet that allowed the "mistress of the seas" to control the vast expanses of the planet and her colonial empire. They had to provoke a conflict between Germany and Russia and, if possible, stay on the sidelines. For example, Sir Edward Gray (British Foreign Secretary 1905-1916) told French President Poincaré: "Russian resources are so great that in the end Germany will be depleted even without the help of England."

The French had an ambivalent attitude to the war, on the one hand, there was no more "Napoleonic" militancy, and they did not want to lose the achieved level of well-being (France was the world's cultural and financial center), but Paris could not forget the shame of 1870-1871. The topic of Alsace and Lorraine was regularly raised on the shield. Many politicians openly led the country to war, among them was Raymond Poincaré, who was elected president in 1913. In addition, many did not like living under the sword of Damocles of Germany, the German empire provoked the beginning of the conflict several times, and only the position of Russia and Britain restrained the belligerent impulses of Berlin. I wanted to solve the problem with one blow.

Great hope was in Russia. In Paris, many believed that if the "Russian barbarians" got off the leash, then Germany would be over. But Russia was quite stable, and its peace-loving position was not shaken by either the Moroccan crises (1905-1906, 1911) or the turmoil in the Balkans (1912-1913).

The peace-loving nature of Russia is also confirmed by the fact that if Germany began to prepare for war and heavily arm, build an increasingly powerful fleet almost immediately after the victory over France in 1871, then Russia only in 1912 adopted a shipbuilding program. And even then she was much more modest than the German or British, in the Baltic the forces of 4 battleships and 4 battle cruisers were enough only to defend their shores. In March 1914 (!), The State Duma adopted a large military program, which provided for an increase in the army and the modernization of weapons, as a result, the Russian army had to surpass the German one. But both programs were to be completed only by 1917.

In September 1913, Paris and St. Petersburg reached a final agreement on interaction in case of war. France was supposed to start hostilities on the 11th day after the start of mobilization, and Russia on the 15th. And in November, the French gave a large loan for the construction of railways in the west of the empire. To improve the mobilization capabilities of Russia.

Internal opponents of the Russian Empire

- A significant part of the imperial elite. The February Revolution of 1917 was staged not by a Bolshevik or Social Revolutionaries, but by financiers, industrialists, part of the generals, senior dignitaries, officials, and State Duma deputies. It was not the red commissars and the Red Guards who were forced to renounce the throne of Nicholas II, but rather well-to-do and well-organized ministers, generals, deputies, freemasons of high degrees of initiation.

They dreamed of making Russia "nice" England or France, their consciousness was formed by the matrix of Western civilization. The autocracy seemed to them the last obstacle on the way to Western Europe... These were supporters of Russia's "European choice" at that time.

- Foreign bourgeoisie, mostly Germans and Jews. Many were members of Masonic lodges. They had contacts abroad. They also dreamed of the "European choice" of Russia. They supported the liberal-bourgeois parties - the Octobrists and the Cadets.

- A significant part of the Russian national bourgeoisie. For the most part, these were Old Believers (Old Believers). The Old Believers considered the power of the Romanovs to be antichrist. This power split the church, disrupted the correct development of Russia, subjected them to persecution, destroyed the institution of patriarchy and carried out the stateization of the church. Petersburg planted Western abominations in Russia.

- Most of the intelligentsia was at the heart of the Westernizing, divorced from the people, a terrible mixture of Voltaires, Hegels, Mars and Engels reigned in their heads ... The intelligentsia was fascinated by the West, dreamed of dragging Russia into Western civilization and rooting it there. In fact, the intelligentsia was "anti-popular" (despite its high level of education), there were few exceptions like Leo Tolstoy or Leskov, and they could not change the general Western vector of movement. The intelligentsia did not understand, did not accept the Russian civilizational project, therefore, having taken part in kindling the fire of the revolution, and itself burned down.

- Professional revolutionaries. They were passionaries of all estates and classes, they were united by a thirst for change. They rejected modern world fully. These people believed that they could create a new world, much better than the old one, but for this it is necessary to completely destroy the old one. Among them were Russians, Jews, Poles, Georgians, etc. This movement was not united, it consisted of many parties, organizations, factions.

- Jews. This nation has become an important factor in the Russian revolution; one should not belittle their importance, but one should not exaggerate either. They constituted a significant part of revolutionaries of all stripes. Moreover, it should be noted that these were not Jews in the traditional sense of the word. For the most part, these were "crossings", "outcasts" of their tribe, those who did not find themselves in the traditional life of Jewish townships. Although they used connections among relatives, including abroad.

- Nationalists. Polish, Finnish, Jewish, Georgian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Ukrainian and other nationalists became a powerful factor in the collapse of the empire, on which the Western powers staked.

what happened during the Russian empire and got the best answer

Answer from ЂC [guru]
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, formed on the basis of the Russian state, which in 1721 Peter I the Great declared an empire. The Russian Empire included the Baltic States, Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus, part of Poland, Bessarabia, the North Caucasus, since the 19th century, in addition, Finland, Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Central Asia and the Pamirs. By the end of the 19th century, the territory of the Russian Empire was 22.4 million square meters. km.
The territory of the Russian Empire in 1914 was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; there were 931 cities. Some of the provinces and regions were united into general governorships (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Steppe, Turkestan and Finland). The official vassals of the Russian Empire were the Bukhara Khanate and the Khiva Khanate. In 1914, the Uryankhai Territory was adopted under the protectorate of the Russian Empire. The Russian Empire was a hereditary monarchy led by an emperor who wielded autocratic power. Members of his family and relatives made up the imperial family. The dominant church is Orthodox, ruled by the emperor through the Synod.
According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million, including the population of European Russia, 93.4 million; Kingdom of Poland 9.5 million, Grand Duchy of Finland 2.6 million, Caucasian kr. 9.3 million, Siberia 5.8 million, cf. Asia 7.7 million. St. 100 nations; 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples. The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire, the male population (from 20 years old) swore allegiance to the emperor. The subjects of the Russian Empire were divided into 4 estates ("states"): nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions stood out as an independent "state" (see. Foreigners).
The coat of arms of the Russian Empire is a two-headed eagle with royal regalia, the national flag is a cloth with white, blue and red horizontal stripes, the national anthem is "God Save the Tsar." National language - Russian. The February Revolution of 1917 overthrew the autocracy. The Provisional Government declared Russia a republic on September 1 (14), 1917.

Answer from 3 answers[guru]

Hey! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: what happened during the Russian Empire

At the beginning of the XIX century. there was an official consolidation of the borders of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe. The Petersburg conventions of 1824 defined the boundaries with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54 ° 40 "N on the coast, and the Russians - to the south. The border between the Russian and British possessions ran along the coast from 54 ° N to 60 ° N at a distance of 10 miles from the edge of the ocean. taking into account all the bends of the coast, the Russian-Norwegian border was established by the St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826.

Academic expeditions of V.M.Severgin and A.I.Sherer in 1802-1804 to the north-west of Russia, to Belarus, the Baltic states and were devoted mainly to mineralogical surveys.

Period geographical discoveries in the inhabited European part of Russia ended. In the XIX century. expeditionary research and their scientific generalization were mainly thematic. Of these, one can name the regionalization (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal bands, proposed by E.F.Kankrin in 1834; the botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Caspian seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by KM Baer; N.A.'s work (1855) on the animal world of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the animal world and physical and geographical conditions, and also established the patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soil; classical soil research of V.V. in the zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V.Dokuchaev, organized by the Forestry Department for a comprehensive study of the nature of the steppes and finding ways to combat. In this expedition, the stationary research method was used for the first time.

Caucasus

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia made it necessary to explore new Russian lands, the study of which was poor. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. Kh. Lenz explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus, determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks in the Caucasus. In 1844-1865. the natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G.V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Bolshoi and Dagestan, the Colchis lowland, and compiled the first general orographic scheme of the Caucasus.

Ural

Among the works that developed the geographical concept of the Urals, are the description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; the publication of "Natural History of the Orenburg Territory" by E. A. Eversman (1840), which gives a comprehensive characterization of the nature of this territory with a well-grounded natural division; expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Goffman, V.G. Bragin), during which the peak of Konstantinov Kamen was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled, which served as the basis for compiling a map of the explored part of the Urals ... A notable event was the trip in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and to the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Siberia

In the XIX century. continued exploration of Siberia, many areas of which were very poorly studied. In Altai, in the 1st half of the century, the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P.A.Chikhachev carried out physical-geographical and geological research.

In 1843-1844. AF Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East, for the first time he received information about the nature of Taimyr, Stanovoy ridge. Based on the travel materials, A.F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published "A Journey to the North and East of Siberia" - one of the best examples of systematic summaries of the nature of the investigated territories. This work gives a characteristic of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the features of the relief of Central Siberia, the originality of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.

In 1853-1855. RK Maak and AK Zondhagen investigated the geology and life of the population of the Central Yakutsk Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the river.

In 1855-1862. The Siberian Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia.

A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of the south of Eastern Siberia. In 1858, L. E. Schwartz conducted geographical research in the Sayan Mountains. During them the topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P.A.Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and. He investigated the rivers Oka, Amur, Ussuri, ridges, discovered the Patomskoe Upland. The Khamar-Daban ridge, coasts, Priangarye, Selenga basin, were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky studied the basins of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska and Olenek rivers, and I. D. Chersky - the upper reaches of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska. Geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition by N.P. Bobyr, L.A. Yachevsky, Ya. P. Prein. The study of Sayanskaya in 1903 was continued by V.L. Popov. In 1910 he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.

In 1891-1892. during his last expedition, ID Chersky explored the Nerskoe plateau, discovered three high mountain ranges beyond the Verkhoyansk ridge, Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistay and Tomushai.

Far East

The exploration of Sakhalin continued, Kuril Islands and adjacent seas. In 1805, I.F.Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811 V.M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849 G.I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur estuary for large ships. In the years 1850-1853. G.I. Nevelskoy and others continued research, Sakhalin, adjacent parts of the continent. In 1860-1867. Sakhalin was investigated by F.B., P.P. Glen, G.V. Shebunin. In the years 1852-1853. N.K Boshnyak investigated and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, lakes Everon and Chukchagirskoe, Bureinsky ridge, Khadzhi bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).

In 1842-1845. AF Middendorf and VV Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.

In the 50-60s. XIX century. investigated the coastal parts of Primorye: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posiet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin made a survey of the northern coast of the Sea of ​​Japan and the Gulf of Peter the Great. The Lower Amur and the northern part of the Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budischev. In 1858 M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. and Ussuri were investigated by P.A. Kropotkin. In the years 1867-1869. made a major trip to the Ussuri region. He carried out comprehensive studies of the nature of the basins of the Ussuri and Suchan rivers, crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.

middle Asia

As individual parts of Central Asia were annexed to the Russian Empire, and sometimes even preceding it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists studied and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, Obshchy Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was explored by E.A. Eversman. In the years 1825-1836. carried out a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoi Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau GS Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. A.I.Shrenk studied East Kazakhstan.

In 1840-1845. the Balkhash-Alakol depression was discovered (A.I.Shrenk, T.F. Nifant'ev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev carried out the first surveys of the lakes, Zaisan. In 1848-1849. AI Butakov carried out the first survey, discovered a number of islands, the Chernyshev Bay.

Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the expedition of 1857 I. G. Borshchov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba river basin and the Bolshie Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued his research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian Territory. He considered steppes and deserts as natural geographic complexes and analyzed the interrelationships between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation.

Since the 1840s. exploration of the high mountains of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845. A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857. P.P.Semenov initiated the scientific research of the Tien Shan. Research in the mountains of Central Asia flourished during the period of the expeditionary leadership of P.P. Semyonov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867. N. A. Severtsov explored the Kyrgyz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskemsky and Kakshaal-Toon ranges, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kuhistan, Alay and Zaalayskiy ridges. N. A. Severtsov, A. I. Skassi discovered the Rushan Range and the Fedchenko Glacier (1877-1879). The studies carried out made it possible to distinguish the Pamirs into a separate mountain system.

Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V.A.Obruchev in 1886-1888 (the Karakum desert and the ancient Uzboy valley).

Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902 conducted.

North and Arctic

At the beginning of the XIX century. the opening of the New Siberian Islands ended. In 1800-1806 Ya. Sannikov carried out inventories of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered the island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811. the expedition of M. M. Gedenshtrom visited. In 1815 M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilievsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823. P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental studies, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the Novosibirsk Islands, explored and described the islands of Semyonovsky, Vasilievsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenek rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.

In the years 1820-1824. F.P. Wrangel under very difficult natural conditions traveled across the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukotka Peninsula), predicted existence.

Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotsebue discovered in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska a large bay named after him. In 1818-1819. the eastern coast of the Bering Sea was investigated by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the Yukon delta of Alaska was discovered. In 1835-1838. the lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were studied by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L.A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior regions of Alaska. In 1829-1835. the coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F.Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokwim ridge (Kuskokwim). In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the opening of the Alexander Archipelago.

The archipelago was intensively explored. In 1821-1824. FP Litke explored, described and made a map of the western coast of Novaya Zemlya in the Novaya Zemlya brig. Attempts to make an inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833. P.K.Pakhtusov made the first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the South Island of Novaya Zemlya. In 1834-1835. P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A. K. Tsivol'ka and S. A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the Northern Island up to 74.5 ° N. sh., the Strait of Matochkin Shar is described in detail, the island of Pakhtusov is discovered. The description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V.A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829 managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from the Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The studies carried out made it possible to begin the study of vegetation, fauna and the geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K.M.Ber, 1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a large expedition in 1837, A.I.Shrenk explored the Chesh Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, an island, the Pai-Khoi ridge, and the polar Urals. Exploration of this area in 1840-1845. continued by A.A.Keyserling, who surveyed the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. He carried out comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula and the North Siberian Lowland in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In the years 1847-1850. The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi ridge was thoroughly explored.

In 1867 Wrangel Island was discovered, an inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American explorer R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and for the first time explored the inner regions of the island.

In 1901, the Russian icebreaker "", under the command of S.O. Makarov, visited. In 1913-1914. a Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov spent the winter on the archipelago. At the same time, a group of participants in the troublesome expedition of G. L. Brusilov on the ship “St. Anna ”, headed by navigator V. I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all the energy was directed to the preservation of life, V.I.

In 1878-1879. In two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N.A.E. for the first time passed the Northern Sea Route from west to east on the small sailing-steam vessel "Vega". This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.

In 1913, the Severnoye Hydrographic Expedition under the leadership of B.A. solid ice and following along their edge to the north, she discovered the islands called the Land of Emperor Nicholas II (now - Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and next year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now -). The western and northern shores remained completely unknown.

Russian Geographical Society

The Russian Geographical Society (RGO), founded in 1845 (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO), has contributed greatly to the development of domestic cartography.

In 1881, the American polar explorer J. De Long discovered the islands of Jeannette, Henrietta and Bennett to the north-east of New Siberia. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886. the study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the Novosibirsk Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.

Already at the beginning of 1852 it published its first twenty-five verst (1: 1,050,000) map of the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, based on the materials of the Ural expedition of the Russian Geographical Society in 1847-1850. For the first time, the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge was also depicted with great accuracy and detail.

The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the Amur river regions, the southern part of the Lena and Yenisei, and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).

Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGO, led by N.M. Przhevalsky, G.N. Potanin, M.V. Pevtsov, G.E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V.I. Roborovsky, P.K. Kozlov and V.A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the photography of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and photographed (of which more than 30,000 km were accounted for by N.M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined and the heights of 3533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as the lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this greatly contributed to the creation of modern physical map Central Asia.

The heyday of the expeditionary activity of the IRGO falls on the years 1873-1914, when the Grand Duke Constantine was at the head of the society, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia and other regions of the country; two polar stations were created. Since the mid-1880s. The expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in individual branches - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.

The IRGO made a great contribution to the study of the country's relief. To process the levelings and make a hypsometric map, a hypsometric commission of the IRGO was created. In 1874 the IRGO under the leadership of A.A. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Lake Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A.A. Tillo to compile a “map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts in an inch (1: 2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50,000 elevations were used for its compilation obtained as a result of leveling. The map revolutionized the understanding of the structure of the relief of this territory. On it, the orography of the European part of the country was presented in a new way, which has not changed in its main features to the present day, for the first time the Central Russian and Volga Uplands were depicted. In 1894, the Forestry Department under the leadership of A.A. Tillo, with the participation of S.N., organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, on lakes).

The military topographic service, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, carried out a large number of pioneering reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps of many territories were compiled, which were previously “white spots” on the map.

Territory mapping in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Topographic and geodetic works

In 1801-1804. His Majesty's Own Map Depot issued the first state multi-sheet (107 sheets) map of 1: 840,000 scale, which covered almost all of European Russia and was named the Capital Map. Its content was based mainly on the materials of the General Survey.

In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff under the leadership of Major General F.F. (1743) to the world. Survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.

After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were merged. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for the training of professional topographers - a military school, founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanem topographic corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.

In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with officers-topographers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.

In 1819, topographic surveys on a scale of 1: 21,000 began in Russia, based on triangulation and carried out mainly with the help of a mensula. In 1844, they were replaced by surveys at a scale of 1: 42,000.

On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Staff of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping has become one of the main tasks of military topographers. FF Schubert, a remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer, was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.

In the years 1816-1852. in Russia, the largest triangulation work for that time was carried out, stretching 25 ° 20 "along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).

Under the leadership of FF Schubert and KI Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on the materials of these surveys in the 20-30s. XIX century. compiled and engraved semitopographic (semi-topographic) maps for the provinces on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.

The military topographic depot began in 1821 to draw up a survey and topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1: 420,000), which is extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten verst of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on the creation of the map continued with interruptions until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half sheets).

A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of Military Topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829. detailed maps were compiled at a scale of 1: 210,000 of the Baku province, the Talish Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.

In 1828-1832. shooting was carried out and Wallachia, which became a model of the work of its time, since it was based on enough astronomical points. All maps were compiled into an atlas of 1:16 000. The total survey area reached 100 thousand square meters. versts

Since the 30s. geodetic and boundary works began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulations became the basis for the creation of accurate topographic maps of the Crimea. Geodetic networks developed in the Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and in other regions.

In 1833, the head of the KBT, General FF Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition to the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points associated with them trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.

From 1857 to 1862 Under the direction and funds of the IRGO, the Military Topographic Depot compiled and published on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasian Territory on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map for the first time in Russia was created in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the initial meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was reprinted several times.

In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst and an orographic forty-verst map of the Caucasus were published.

Among the best cartographic works of the IRGO is the "Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their environs" compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, at the suggestion of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.

The Caucasian military-topographic department under the leadership of General II Stebnitsky conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea.

In 1867, a Cartographic Establishment was opened at the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic institution of A.A. Ilyin opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.

Relief maps took a special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO. The large relief map was completed in 1868 and exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances at a scale of 1: 420,000, and for vertical distances - 1:84 000.

The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of I.I.

Work was also carried out on topogeodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. So, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in the Peter the Great Bay.

The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at that time. Such, in particular, is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V.P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).

Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographic service has been the creation of a military topographic map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of the military topographic map had been published, and by 1917 - 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was conveyed by strokes.

In 1848-1866. Under the leadership of Lieutenant General A. I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps and atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of ​​about 345,000 square meters. versts Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst per inch (1:42 000), Yaroslavl - two versts per inch (1:84 000), Simbirskaya and Nizhegorodskaya - three versts per inch (1: 126 000) and Penza province- on a scale of eight versts in inch (1: 336,000). Based on the survey results, the IRGO published multicolored topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84 000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts in an inch (1: 336 000).

Filming Mende had an undoubted impact on the further improvement of the methodology of state mapping. In 1872, the Military Topographic Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map at a scale of 2 versts per inch (1: 84,000), which was the most detailed source of information about the area used in troops and the national economy up to the 30s. XX century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow, etc. It was one of the first Russian topographic maps on which the relief was depicted as horizontal lines.

In 1869-1885. a detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one verst in an inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. Single verst maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.

By the 60s. XIX century. The Special Map of European Russia by FF Schubert on a scale of 10 versts per inch is strongly outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed Captain of the General Staff I.A. works. In 1872, the compilation of all 152 sheets of the map was completed. The ten verstka was reprinted many times and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map has been widely used not only for military purposes, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.

By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments traveled more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and eye surveys. Based on their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.

In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic works in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the ITC, General ND Artamonov. It was decided to develop a new triangulation of the 1st class according to a specific program proposed by General II Pomerantsev. The KBT started implementing the program in 1910. By 1914, the bulk of the work had been completed.

By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys had been completed in Poland in full, in southern Russia (the triangle of Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces in part; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd and Minsk provinces, and in part in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, to the east of the survey sites of half and verst scales.

The results of topographic surveys of the previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: a half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21 000); milestone map of the Western border area, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42 000); military topographic two-verst map (1: 84,000), three-verst map (1: 126,000) with relief, expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1: 420,000); military road 25-verst map of European Russia (1: 1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic map (1: 1 680 000); maps of the Caucasus and neighboring foreign states.

In addition to the above maps, the Military Topographic Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and adjacent states, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of the entire Asian Russia.

During the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918) the corps of military topographers carried out an enormous amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: geodetic points were identified - 63 736; astronomical points (in latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis on a different scale on an area of ​​7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys - on an area of ​​506,247 km2. In 1917, the supply of the Russian army was 6739 nomenclatures of maps of various scales.

In general, by 1917, a huge field survey material was obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works were created, however, the coverage of the topographic survey of the territory of Russia was uneven, a significant part of the territory remained unexplored in topographic terms.

Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans

The achievements of Russia in the study of the World Ocean were also significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting with the maiden voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the leadership of Yu. V. Lisyansky, made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic study of the World Ocean.

In addition to hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among whom were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F.P. Wrangel, A.K. Etolin and M. D. Tebenkov, continuously replenished knowledge about the North Pacific Ocean and improved the navigational charts of these regions. Especially great was the contribution of M. D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed Atlas of the Northwestern shores of America from to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the North-Eastern coast of Asia, published by the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy in 1852.

In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the final formulation of the geographical concepts of the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 1920s and 1930s. XIX century. expeditions of F.P. Litke, P.K. To solve the problem of the development of transport links of European Pomorie, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most effective of which were the Pechora expedition of I.N. Ivanov (1824) and the inventory of I.N. Ivanov and I.A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps compiled by them had a solid astronomical and geodetic basis. Exploration of sea coasts and islands in the north of Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries by Russian industrialists of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago, as well as by the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. During an expedition led by M.M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, which explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole was created for the first time, as well as the continental sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands has been completed. In the 20s. Yanskaya (1820-1824) under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and Kolymskaya (1821-1824) - under the leadership of F.P. These expeditions carried out on an expanded scale the program of work of the expedition of M. M. Gedenshtrom. They were supposed to take pictures of the banks from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenek River to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the group of Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands. In the eastern part of Wrangel's map, according to the data of local residents, an island with the inscription “Mountains are seen from Cape Yakan in summer” was marked. This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I.F.Kruzenshtern (1826) and G.A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867 it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and named after Wrangel to commemorate the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer. The results of the expeditions of P.F. Anjou and F.P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 manuscript maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.

Not only scientific, but also of tremendous geopolitical significance for Russia were held in the middle of the 19th century. GI Nevelskoy and his followers intensive marine expeditionary research in Okhotsk and. Although the insular position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, however, the problem of the accessibility of the Amur estuary for sea vessels from the south and north was finally and positively solved only by G.I. Nevelsky. This discovery drastically changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur and Primorye, showing the enormous potential of these richest regions, provided, as the studies of G.I. Nevelskoy, by end-to-end water communications leading to the Pacific Ocean. Themselves, these studies were carried out by travelers, sometimes at their own peril and risk, in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G.I. Nevelskoy paved the way for the return of the Amur Region to Russia under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and annexation to the Primorye Empire (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographic research on the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in the borders in the Far East in accordance with the agreements between Russia and China, were cartographically declared on the maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published in the shortest possible time.

Russian hydrographers in the 19th century continued active work on the European seas. After the annexation of the Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian Navy on the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, a navigation atlas was compiled by I.N. Billings on the northern coast, in 1807 - IM Budishchev's atlas on the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - “The General Map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In the years 1825-1836. under the leadership of EP Manganari, on the basis of triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish in 1841 the Atlas of the Black Sea.

In the XIX century. continued intensive study of the Caspian Sea. In 1826, based on the materials of detailed hydrographic work in 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Collegiums under the leadership of AE Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully satisfied the requirements of the shipping of that time.

In subsequent years, the maps of the atlas were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the western coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836), etc. - on the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. In 1847 I. I. Zherebtsov described the bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsov, who for 15 years carried out a systematic survey and description, drawing up several plans and 26 maps, covering almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.

In the XIX century. intensive work continued to improve the maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the "Atlas of the entire Baltic Sea ..." (1812) compiled by GA Sarychev. In 1834-1854. on the basis of the materials of the chronometric expedition of FF Schubert, maps of the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea were compiled and published.

Significant changes in the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula were made by the hydrographic works of F.P. Litke (1821-1824) and M.F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the Reinecke expedition in 1833, the Atlas of the White Sea ... was published, the maps of which were used by navigators until the beginning of the 20th century, and the Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia, which supplemented this atlas, can be regarded as an example of the geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to M.F. Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.

Thematic mapping

The active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the development of special (thematic) cartography. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th and early 20th centuries.

In 1832, the Main Directorate of Railways published the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire. It includes general maps on scales of 20 and 10 versts in inches, detailed maps on a scale of 2 versts in inches and plans on a scale of 100 fathoms in inches and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to an increase in the cartographic study of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.

Significant cartographic work in the 19th and early 20th centuries. was carried out by the Ministry of State Property, formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of Civil Topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.

An important achievement of domestic cartography was the "Great World Table Atlas of Marx", published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), which contained over 200 maps and an index of 130 thousand geographical names.

Nature mapping

Geological mapping

In the XIX century. intensive cartographic study continued mineral resources Russia and their exploitation, special geognostic (geological) mapping is being developed. At the beginning of the XIX century. many maps of mountain districts, plans of factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, mineral springs were created. The history of exploration and development of minerals in the Altai and Nerchinsk mountain districts is especially detailed in the maps.

Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Maps of Salt Fields”, compiled in the Mining Department. The maps in the collection mainly date from the 1920s and 1930s. XIX century. Many of the maps of this atlas are much wider in content than ordinary maps of salt fields, and are, in fact, early samples of geological (petrographic) maps. So, among the maps of G. Vansovich in 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The "Map of the Pskov and part of the Novgorod province: with an indication of mining and salt sources discovered in 1824 ..." also has a rich geological content.

An extremely rare example of an early map is “ Topographic map the Crimean peninsula ... "with the designation of the depth and quality of water in the villages, compiled by A. N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on a cartographic basis in 1817. In addition, the map contains information about the areas of territories with different water supply, as well as a table of the number of villages by counties in need of water supply.

In 1840-1843. English geologist R.I. Murchison, together with A.A.Keyserling and N.I.

In the 50s. XIX century. the first geological maps are being published in Russia. One of the earliest is the "Geognostic Map of the St. Petersburg Province" (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research found expression in the "Geological Map of European Russia" (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).

The main task of the Geological Committee was to create a 10-verst (1: 420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map out of the planned 170 were published. began geological mapping of some regions of Asian Russia.

In 1895, the Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism was published, compiled by AA Tillo.

Forest mapping

One of the earliest manuscript maps of forests is the Map for Observing the State of Forests and the Timber Industry in [European] Russia, compiled in 1840-1841, as established by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state-owned forests, the timber industry and timber-consuming industries, as well as on improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for her were collected through inquiries through local government property departments, as well as other departments. In the final form in 1842, two maps were drawn; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the earliest samples of soil-climatic maps, on which climatic zones and dominant soils in European Russia were indicated. Soil-climatic map has not yet been found.

The work on compiling a map of forests in European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the device and mapping and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions were created and conventional signs for drawing up forest plans and maps, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state lands in Siberia, which became especially widespread after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was intensive development of the resettlement movement.

Soil mapping

In 1838, a systematic study of soils began in Russia. Mostly on the basis of questionnaires, many handwritten soil maps were compiled. A prominent economic geographer and climatologist Academician KS Veselovsky in 1855 compiled and published the first consolidated Soil Map of European Russia, which shows eight types of soils: chernozem, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, salt licks, tundra , swamps. The works of K.S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V.V. soil formation. His book "Cartography of Russian Soils", published by the Department of Agriculture and rural industry in 1879, as an explanatory text to the "Soil Map of European Russia", laid the foundations of modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882 V.V.Dokuchaev and his followers (N.M.Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, S.S.Neustruev, L.I. in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works were soil maps of provinces (on a 10-verst scale) and more detailed maps of individual counties. Under the leadership of V.V.Dokuchaev, N.M.Sibirtsev, G.I.

Socio-economic mapping

Farm mapping

The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a deeper study of the national economy. To this end, in the middle of the XIX century. overview economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces are being created (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.). The first economic map published in Russia was "Map of the industry of European Russia showing factories, factories and trades, administrative places for the manufacturing part, the main fairs, water and land communications, ports, lighthouses, customs, the main marinas, quarantines, etc. 1842" ...

A significant cartographic work is the "Economic and statistical atlas of European Russia from 16 maps", compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. It was the first economic atlas in our country dedicated to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climatic, agricultural). An attempt is made in the atlas and its textual part to summarize the main features and directions of the development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. XIX century.

Of undoubted interest is the handwritten "Statistical Atlas" compiled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the leadership of NA Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms reflecting the most diverse socio-economic parameters. It, apparently, was compiled in parallel with the "Economic and statistical atlas" of 1851 and compared with it gives a lot of new information.

A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the "Maps of the most important sectors of productivity of European Russia" compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1: 2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement of the organization of statistical affairs in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. The materials collected over the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that multifaceted and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map has proved to be an excellent reference and valuable resource for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of the content, expressiveness and originality of the methods of mapping, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance up to the present time.

The first capital atlas of industry was the “Statistical Atlas of the Main Branches of Factory Industry in European Russia” by DA Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (Ural, Nerchinsk district, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic maps of freight flows along railways and waterways were published.

One of best works Russian socio-economic cartography of the early XX century. is the "Commercial and industrial map of European Russia" VP Semyonov-Tyan-Shan scale 1: 1,680,000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and areas.

It is worth dwelling on one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas album "Agricultural trade in Russia" (1914), which is a collection of statistical maps of agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential possibilities of agricultural economy in Russia for attracting new investments from abroad.

Population mapping

PI Keppen organized a systematic collection of statistical data on the number and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The work of PI Keppen resulted in the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1: 3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1: 2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General AF Rittich. At the Paris International Geographic Exhibition, the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasian region at a scale of 1: 1,080,000 (A.F. Rittich, 1875), Asian Russia (M.I.Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), etc. were published.

Other thematic cartographic works include the first map of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), A. Rakint's “General Map of the Whole Russian Empire with the Degree of Population” at a scale of 1: 21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.

Integrated research and mapping

In the years 1850-1853. The police department issued atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).

In 1897 VV Dokuchaev's student GI Tanfilyev published the regionalization of European Russia, which was first called physical-geographical. Tanfiliev's scheme clearly reflected zoning, and also outlined some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions.

In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, was published. In 1910 the second edition of this atlas appeared.

The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the capital Atlas of Asiatic Russia, published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, with an appendix of an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions of agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this edition for the first time included a thorough review of the history of mapping of Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later the famous historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The content of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflects the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas contains an extensive set of economic maps of Asian Russia. Its central section is made up of maps, on which the general picture of land tenure and land use is shown with backgrounds of different colors, which reflects the results of the ten-year activity of the Resettlement Directorate for the settlement of migrants.

A special map has been placed on the distribution of the population of Asian Russia by religion. Three maps are dedicated to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. The cartograms for agriculture show the share of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are devoted to communication routes, post offices and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for the sparsely populated Asiatic Russia.

So, by the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided the needs of the defense, the national economy, science and education of the country, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. By the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire possessed vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state, published by A.A. Ilyin's cartographic institution in 1915.