“Great Reforms” of Alexander II, their historical significance. Reforms of Alexander II

(Great Reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century in the Russian Empire by Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of state life.

Prerequisites and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2

Russia remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom longer than any other state. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state had completely outlived its usefulness, and the conflict, which had been brewing since the 18th century, reached its peak. There was an urgent need to change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.

With the development of technology and the advent of industrial equipment, the need for manual labor increasingly disappeared, but landowners still actively used the labor of peasants, imposing huge taxes on them. As a result, the peasantry went bankrupt everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in serfdom and the income of landowners. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the bankrupt landowners, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.

The developing industry also suffered, since due to the widespread enslavement of peasants, there was not enough free labor that could service the machines in factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant revolts and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which completely undermined citizens' trust in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such a situation, conversations began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, at one of his speeches before the nobility, declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it will happen from below (revolution).

The era of great reforms has begun.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the main political reforms of Alexander 2 are:

• Peasant reform (1861);
• Financial reform (1863);
• Educational reform (1863);
• Zemstvo reform (1864);
• Judicial reform (1864);
• Reform of state self-government (1870);
• Military reform (1874);

The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms was the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and bourgeoisie, was carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy himself an arable plot for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, open commercial and industrial enterprises, and apply for a transfer to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

Another reform of Alexander 2 was the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as openness and freedom of the press (relative) appeared; newspapers could discuss events carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. The Iron Curtain was also lifted, and people could leave the country more freely.

The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all classes and the principle of publicity and openness. The jury appeared, which allowed the judiciary to separate from the executive branch and make more independent decisions.

Zemstvo and city reforms created open local government bodies, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this significantly simplified the process of city self-government.

The military reform involved replacing Peter's conscription system with universal conscription. This allowed for the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at short notice when needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the general level of education in society began to grow rapidly.

Results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander 2

It is not for nothing that the political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander 2 are called great. Thanks to them, the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire was laid - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of class, as well as the opportunity for a fair and open trial. The press became freer, allowing citizens to be able to discuss and condemn government decisions.

The liberation of peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to emerge from the crisis and create conditions for further successful growth, taking into account new economic realities.

In general, the country has experienced significant changes that have helped it embark on a new path of development, more successful and modern.

Loris-Melikov's reforms

A number of assassination attempts on the royal family, especially the explosion of Khalturin in the Winter Palace (1880), testified to the significant growth of the revolutionary movement, with which the liberal movement began to unite. Having recognized the incompleteness of some of his previous transformations, Alexander II decided to entrust their further development to General Loris-Melikov. He put forward plans for a number of reforms regarding the situation of peasants, the tax system, freedom of the press, and abolished the III department (political police). Loris-Melikov even intended to involve elected people's representatives in a preliminary discussion of the most important bills, which would introduce elements of constitutionalism into Russian statehood. You can read about the program of this minister in the articles on our website: Loris-Melikov and his projects, Loris-Melikov’s reforms - briefly, Loris-Melikov’s “Constitution” - briefly. The government abandoned these projects after the assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya on March 1, 1881.

Reforms carried out by Alexander II in the period 1855-1881. are still relevant today. He and his followers laid the foundations of the modern state management system, government system, executive and judicial systems.

For example, it was he and his followers-reformers who introduced the basic principles of civil and criminal judicial investigation and process, such as: legality, administration of justice only by the court, respect for the honor and dignity of the individual, personal integrity, protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen in legal proceedings, inviolability of home, presumption of innocence, adversarial nature of the parties, ensuring a citizen’s right to defense, freedom to assess circumstances, and others.

It should be noted that the reforms of Alexander II affected almost all aspects of the public life of Russian society: political, economic and social. The rapid development of railway construction and the construction of transport infrastructure contributed to an increase in industrial productivity and the formation of new industries: chemical, textile, mining, engineering, etc. It was during his reign that the existing industrial centers of Russia and neighboring countries were formed: Donetsk, Kharkov and Nikolaev regions in Ukraine, the Volga and Ural regions in Russia, the Baku oil fields in the Caucasus, etc.

The development of transport, the armed forces, and the economy brought the Russian Empire into the second half of the 19th century. at the very peak of its power, when it began to be taken into account in international politics and perceived as an international power equal in status to itself.

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, ascended the throne after the death of Nicholas I.

Alexander Nikolaevich, in order to familiarize himself with state affairs, from 1834 attended meetings of the Senate, and from 1835 - and the Synod.

The most important and, perhaps, one of the most difficult reforms under Alexander II in Russia was the abolition of serfdom by the Regulations of February 19, 1861. It was for this that the emperor was popularly nicknamed the Tsar-Liberator.

Serfdom in Russia lasted much longer than in any other European country. The government was able to abolish serfdom only in 1861. Back in 1856, the emperor, receiving representatives of the nobility, announced his intention to carry out peasant reform.

In the economic sphere, there was a growing crisis in the landlord economy, based on the forced, extremely ineffective labor of serfs. In the social sphere, there was an intensification of peasant protest against serfdom, which was expressed in increased unrest. So, for example, in 1831-1840. in Russia there were 328 peasant unrest; in 1841-1850 - 545 peasant unrest; in 1851-1860 - 1010 peasant unrest.

The defeat in the Crimean War showed that serfdom was the main reason for the country's military-technical backwardness. Fearing that Russia would be thrown back into the ranks of minor powers, to which our Fatherland was classified by the ideologist of the Marxist movement, F. Engels, in his work “The Theory of the Art of War,” the government embarked on the path of social, economic and political reforms.

On January 3, 1857, the government formed a secret committee to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants, but since it consisted of ardent serf owners, it acted indecisively. However, after some time, noticing that peasant discontent was not subsiding, but, on the contrary, growing, the committee began to seriously prepare for peasant reform. In February 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee "on landowner peasants emerging from serfdom."

The majority of landowners opposed the reform. Some landowners agreed, but on different conditions: some defended the option of liberating peasants without land and for the ransom of the peasant’s personal freedom, others, whose economy was more drawn into market relations, or who intended to rebuild it on an entrepreneurial basis, advocated a more liberal option - liberation peasants with land with a relatively moderate ransom.

Preparations for the peasant reform took place in an atmosphere of socio-political upsurge in the country. In the 1850s Two ideological centers emerged that led the revolutionary-democratic direction of Russian thought: A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev, N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov in London.

There was a revival of the liberal opposition movement among those sections of the nobility who considered it necessary not only to abolish serfdom, but also to create class-wide elected bodies of government, establish a public court, introduce openness in general, carry out reforms in the field of education, etc.

By the end of August 1859, the draft “Regulations on Peasants” was prepared. At the end of January 1861, the project was submitted to the final authority - the State Council. Here a new “addition” was made to the project in favor of the landowners: at the suggestion of one of the largest landowners, P. P. Gagarin, a clause was introduced on the right of the landowner to provide the peasants with immediate ownership and free of charge of a quarter of the allotment. Such an allotment was called “quarter” or “donation”.

On February 19, the “Regulations” (17 legislative acts) were signed by the tsar and received force. On the same day, the tsar signed the Manifesto for the liberation of the peasants. According to the Manifesto, peasants received complete personal freedom.

For centuries, peasants fought for their freedom. If earlier a landowner could take away all his property from a serf, forcefully marry, sell, separate from his family and simply kill, then with the release of the Manifesto on February 19, 1861, the peasant got the opportunity to independently conclude deals, open enterprises, move to other classes, etc. . This provided an opportunity for the development of peasant entrepreneurship, contributed to the increase in the departure of peasants to work, and in general gave impetus to the development of the economy in post-reform Russia.

In accordance with the Manifesto of February 19, 1861, peasant self-government was introduced, that is, village and volost assemblies headed by village elders and volost elders. Peasants were given the right to distribute land, assign duties, determine the order of serving conscription duties, accept into the community and dismiss from it.

A volost peasant court was introduced for minor crimes and property claims. The redemption of estates and field plots specified in the law was impossible for peasants, so the government came to the aid of the peasantry by establishing a “redemption system.” The Manifesto of February 19, 1861 states that landowners will be able to receive a land loan as soon as their land relations with the peasants are arranged and the land allotment is established. The loan was issued to the landowner with interest-bearing securities and was counted towards the peasants as a government debt, which they had to repay within 49 years with “Redemption payments”.

The procedure for implementing the peasant reform required an agreement between the landowner and the peasant regarding the size of the allotment, as well as regarding the obligations of the peasant in relation to the landowner. This should have been stated in the “statutory charter” within one year from the date of release. While the abolition of serfdom occurred immediately, the liquidation of feudal economic relations that had been established for decades lasted for many years. According to the law, peasants were required to serve the same duties as under serfdom for another two years. Only the corvee decreased somewhat and small natural taxes were abolished. Before the peasants were transferred to redemption, they were in a temporarily obligated position, that is, they were obliged to perform corvee labor according to the norms established by law or pay quitrent for the plots provided to them. Since there was no specific period after which the temporarily obliged peasants had to be transferred to compulsory redemption, their liberation lasted for 20 years (although by 1881 no more than 15% of them remained). Despite the predatory nature of the reform of 1861 for the peasants, its significance for the further development of the country was very great. This reform was a turning point in the transition from feudalism to capitalism. The liberation of peasants contributed to the intensive growth of the labor force, and the provision of some civil rights to them contributed to the development of entrepreneurship. For landowners, the reform ensured a gradual transition from feudal forms of economy to capitalist ones. 2. 2. Bourgeois reforms of Alexander II.

In accordance with the provisions of the reform, more than 22 million Russian peasants were freed in the country, and a new order of public peasant governance was established.

The city reform of 1870 created all-estate local government bodies. Administrative functions were assigned to the representative body of city society - the Duma. Elections to the Duma took place every four years. The number of Duma members - councilors - was quite significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. There were more vowels in the capital's dumas: in Moscow - 180, St. Petersburg - 252. At the meeting of the duma, the executive body of public administration was elected - the council and the mayor, who was the chairman of the executive and administrative bodies.

Suffrage was based on property qualifications. The right to participate in elections, regardless of class, was given to owners of real estate taxed in favor of the city, as well as persons paying it certain commercial and industrial fees. Various departments, institutions, societies, companies, churches, and monasteries also enjoyed suffrage as a legal entity. Only men over 25 years of age were allowed to vote in person. Women who had the necessary voting qualifications could participate in elections only through their proxies. In fact, wage workers, the vast majority of whom did not own real estate, were deprived of the right to vote, as well as representatives of the educated part of the population, people of mental work: engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who mostly did not have their own houses, but rented apartments.

New public institutions were entrusted with the tasks of managing the municipal economy. Issues of urban management and improvement were transferred to their jurisdiction: water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems, etc. City councils were obliged to take care of “public welfare”: provide assistance in providing the population with food, take measures against fires and other disasters, help protect “public health” (establish hospitals, help the police in carrying out sanitary and hygienic measures), take measures against beggary, promote the spread of public education (establish schools, museums, etc.).

The judicial statutes of November 20, 1864 decisively broke with the pre-reform judicial system and legal proceedings. The new court was built on non-estate principles, the irremovability of judges, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, orality and adversarial proceedings were proclaimed; When considering criminal cases in the district court, the participation of jurors was provided.

In accordance with the provisions of the Judicial Reform of 1864, the judicial power was separated from the executive, administrative and legislative powers, which balanced the branches of government in their relationships with each other. It is necessary to recall that the legal and democratic principles of separation of powers laid down by J. J. Rousseau, S. L. Montesquieu, N. Macchiavelli, M. A. Speransky (in Russia) were never implemented in the Russian state until the reforms of Alexander II This fact speaks of democracy in the development of the state - perhaps more so than in many European countries.

The system of jurisdiction was also changed. Magistrate courts were created in counties and cities to consider minor criminal cases. The magistrate's court had jurisdiction over cases for which the commission was punishable in the form of a reprimand, reprimand or suggestion, a fine of not more than 300 rubles, arrest of not more than three months, or imprisonment of not more than a year.

When considering criminal cases in the district court, the institution of jurors was provided for. It was introduced despite the resistance of conservative forces and even the reluctance of Alexander II himself. They motivated their negative attitude towards the idea of ​​juries by the fact that the people were not yet mature enough for this, and such a trial would inevitably be of a “political nature.”

According to judicial statutes, a juror could be a citizen of Russia between the ages of 25 and 70, who was not under trial or investigation, was not excluded from service by court and was not subject to public condemnation for vices, was not under guardianship, did not suffer from mental illness, blindness, mute and lived in this district for at least two years. A relatively high property qualification was also required.

The second instance for district courts was the judicial chamber, which had departments. Its chairman and members were approved by the Tsar on the proposal of the Minister of Justice. It served as an appellate court for civil and criminal cases tried in district courts without juries.

The Senate was considered as the supreme court of cassation and had criminal and civil cassation departments. Senators were appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice.

The prosecutor's office was reorganized, it was included in the judicial department, and it was headed by the prosecutor general, who was also the minister of justice.

Court chairmen, prosecutors and judicial investigators were required to have a higher legal education or solid legal practice. Judges and judicial investigators were permanent, they were assigned high salaries in order to assign honest professionals to judicial institutions.

The largest step towards introducing the principles of European justice was the establishment of the institution of the legal profession.

On November 20, 1866, it was allowed “to print in all timely publications about what is happening in the courts.” Court reports reporting on Russian and foreign trials are becoming a noticeable phenomenon in the press.

The state's defense system has also undergone significant changes.

When considering military reform, one should take into account its dependence on the socio-economic situation in the country and the realities of the international situation of those years. Second half of the 19th century. characterized by the formation of relatively stable military coalitions, which increased the threat of war and led to the rapid build-up of the military potential of all powers. Appeared in the middle of the 19th century. the decomposition of the Russian state system affected the state of the army. Fermentation in the army was clearly evident, cases of revolutionary uprisings were noted, and military discipline was in decline.

The first changes were made in the army already in the late 1850s and early 1860s. Military settlements were finally abolished.

Since 1862, a reform of local military administration began based on the creation of military districts. A new system of military command and control was created that eliminated centralization and contributed to the rapid deployment of the army in the event of war. The War Ministry and the General Staff were reorganized.

In 1865, military judicial reform began to be carried out. Its foundations were built on the principles of transparency and competitiveness of the military court, on the rejection of the vicious system of corporal punishment. Three judicial instances were established: regimental, military district and main military courts, which duplicated the main links of the general judicial system of Russia.

The development of the army largely depended on the presence of a well-trained officer corps. In the mid-1860s, more than half of the officers had no education. It was necessary to resolve two important issues: significantly improve the training of officers and open access to officer ranks not only for nobles and distinguished non-commissioned officers, but also for representatives of other classes. For this purpose, military and cadet schools were created with a short period of study - 2 years, to which persons who graduated from secondary educational institutions were admitted.

On January 1, 1874, the statute on military service was approved. The entire male population over 21 years of age was subject to conscription. For the army, a 6-year period of active service and a 9-year stay in the reserve was generally established (for the navy - 7 and 3). Numerous benefits were established. The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, some national minorities, etc. were exempt from active service. The new system made it possible to have a relatively small peacetime army and significant reserves in case of war.

The army has become modern - in structure, weapons, education. This already affected the course of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878.

Changes in the system of culture and education also differed in depth and scale.

The economic process and the further development of social life in Russia were seriously hampered by the low educational level of the population and the absence of a system of mass training of specialists.

In 1864, a new regulation on primary public schools was introduced, according to which the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people. In the same year, the charter of gymnasiums was approved, proclaiming the availability of secondary education for all classes and religions.

In 1863, a university charter was adopted that restored autonomy to universities: the election of rector, deans, and professors was introduced; The university council received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. The results were immediate: by 1870, there were 17.7 thousand primary schools of all types, with about 600 thousand students; the number of students at universities increased by 1.5 times. This was, of course, little, but incomparably more than in pre-reform times.

At this time, higher educational institutions for women were created (in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan and Kyiv), 3 universities were founded - Novorossiysk (1865), Warsaw (1865) and Tomsk (1880).

In 1863, a provision was adopted to exempt capital periodicals, as well as some books, from preliminary censorship.

There was a gradual abolition of exclusionary and restrictive laws in relation to schismatics and Jews. However, after the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. The government gradually moved to limit reforms to a series of temporary rules and ministerial circulars.

The consequence of this was the rise of the democratic movement in the country, which led to revolutionary terror.

On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II was mortally wounded by a bomb thrown at him by the terrorist Grinevitsky. Alexander II is buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

Internal unity and liberal orientation of the entire complex of reforms of the 1860s - 1870s. allowed Russia to take an important step towards a bourgeois monarchy and introduce new legal principles into the functioning of the state mechanism; gave impetus to the formation of civil society and caused social and cultural upsurge in the country. These are undoubted achievements and positive results of the reforms of Alexander II.

peasant reform Stalin Alexander

The fall of serfdom is the most important turning point in the history of Russia, opening a new path for the economic and social development of the country. The entire subsequent history of the country, right up to the revolution of 1917, took place under the influence of the reforms of the 60s and early 70s of the 19th century. The incompleteness of the initiated reforms and the inability of the existing regime to continue the reform path became the main reasons for the revolutionary explosions of 1905 and 1917.

Conservative-monarchist historians exaggerated the role of Alexander II and criticized him for making too many concessions to liberal public opinion, which undermined the foundations of the autocracy and strengthened the position of his opponents. Liberal-minded historians G.A. Dzhanshiev, I.I. Ivankov, A.A. Kornilov sought to find out the economic, political, moral and ethical reasons for the transformations, the legal and social aspects of the fall of the serfdom. On the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the abolition of serfdom, a multi-volume book “The Great Reform” was published. Liberal opposition movements saw in these events an example of a compromise between the autocracy and public opinion and the fruitfulness of the reformist path for the country. The leaders of revolutionary parties and movements (V.I. Lenin, G.V. Plekhanov) exaggerated the negative consequences of the reforms in order to justify the inevitability and regularity of a revolutionary coup.

The purpose of my work is to consider the essence of the reforms of Emperor Alexander II in the mid-19th century in Russia and determine their significance and consequences for the further development of Russia. During the research, monographs by Platonov S.F., Kargalov V.V., Zakharova L.G., Kornilov A.A. were studied.

1. Upbringing, education, beginning of the reign

Alexander II - Emperor of All Russia, eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818.

Naturally, great importance was given to the upbringing and education of the future monarch. His teachers were General Merder (a company commander at the school of guard warrant officers, who had remarkable teaching abilities, “a gentle disposition and a rare mind”), M. M. Speransky, E. F. Kankrin. No less significant was the influence of another mentor - the famous poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the head of his class studies. I would like to dwell in more detail on Zhukovsky’s education system, which provided not only general knowledge of the then accepted extensive set of subjects and four foreign languages, but also purely specialized knowledge: about the state, its laws, finances, foreign policy and formed a worldview system. The basic principles of raising the Tsarevich looked like this:

WHERE I AM? Nature, its laws. In this part of the program, science subjects are related to the idea of ​​“God in Nature.”

WHO AM I? The doctrine of man, united by Christian doctrine.

WHAT WAS I? History, sacred history.

WHAT SHOULD I BE? Private and public morality.

WHAT AM I DESIGNED FOR? Revealed religion, metaphysics, the concept of God and the immortality of the soul.

And at the end (and not first) law, social history, state economics, statistics that follow from everything.

The knowledge gained was supported by numerous travels. He was the first of the royal family to visit (in 1837) Siberia, and the result of this visit was a mitigation of the fate of political exiles. Later, while in the Caucasus, the Tsarevich distinguished himself during an attack by the highlanders, for which he was awarded the Order of St. George 4th degree. In 1837, at the request of Nicholas I, he undertook a trip to Europe for educational purposes. He traveled around Switzerland, Austria, Italy and stayed for a long time in Berlin, Weimar, Munich, Vienna, Turin, Florence, Rome and Naples.

A big role in the life of Alexander II was played by a visit to Darmstadt, where he met Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria (born July 27, 1824), the adopted daughter of Duke Louis II of Hesse, who soon became the crown prince’s wife, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna.

From the age of 16, Alexander successfully took part in management affairs, first sporadically, and then systematically. At the age of 26 he became a “full general” and had quite professional military training. In the last years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels, he repeatedly replaced his father.

Alexander II ascended the throne on February 19, 1855 at the age of 36. He was to go down in history under the name of the Liberator. Already on the day of coronation, August 26, the sovereign's new manifesto was marked by a number of favors. Recruitment was suspended for three years, all government arrears, charges, etc. were forgiven; various criminals were released, or at least their sentences were commuted, including an amnesty for political prisoners - survivors of the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising of 1831; the admission of young Jews to recruits was canceled, and recruitment between the latter was ordered to be carried out on a general basis; free travel abroad was allowed, etc. But all these measures were only the threshold of those global reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II.

During this period, the Crimean War was in full swing and taking an unfavorable turn, where Russia had to deal with the combined forces of almost all the main European powers. Despite his love of peace, which was also known in Europe, Alexander expressed his firm determination to continue the fight and achieve peace, which was soon achieved. Representatives of seven states (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered in Paris, and on March 18, 1856, a peace treaty was concluded. The Paris peace, although not beneficial for Russia, was still honorable for it in view of such numerous and powerful opponents. However, its disadvantageous side - the limitation of Russia's naval forces on the Black Sea - was eliminated during the life of Alexander II.

2. Alexander P: tragedy of the reformer

2.1 Need for reforms

At the end of the Crimean War, many internal shortcomings of the Russian state were revealed. Change was needed, and the country was looking forward to it. Then the emperor uttered the words that became the slogan of Russia for a long time: “Let its internal prosperity be established and improved; let truth and mercy reign in its courts; let the desire for enlightenment and all useful activities develop everywhere and with renewed vigor...”

In the first place, of course, was the idea of ​​emancipating the serfs. In his speech to representatives of the Moscow nobility, Alexander II said: “it is better to abolish it from above than to wait for it to be abolished from below.” There was no other way out, since every year the peasants increasingly expressed their dissatisfaction with the existing system. The corvee form of exploitation of the peasant expanded, which caused crisis situations. First of all, the labor productivity of serfs began to decline, as landowners wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. The most far-sighted landowners realized that forced labor was much inferior in productivity to hired labor (For example, large landowner A.I. Koshelev wrote about this in his article “Hunting is worse than bondage” in 1847). But hiring workers required considerable expenses from the landowner at a time when serf labor was free. Many landowners tried to introduce new farming systems, use the latest technology, purchase improved varieties of purebred livestock, etc. Unfortunately, such measures led them to ruin and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants. The debts of landowners' estates to credit institutions grew. Further development of the economy on the serf system was impossible. Moreover, having existed in Russia much longer than in European countries, it took very strict forms.

However, there is another point of view regarding this reform, according to which by the middle of the 19th century, serfdom had not yet exhausted its capabilities and protests against the government were very weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia, but by maintaining serfdom, it could drop out of the ranks of the great powers.

The peasant reform entailed the transformation of all aspects of state and public life. A number of measures were envisaged to restructure local government, the judicial system, education and, later, the army. These were truly major changes, comparable only to the reforms of Peter I.

2.2 Abolition of serfdom

On January 3, 1857, the first significant step was taken, which served as the beginning of the reform: the creation of a Secret Committee under the direct supervision and chairmanship of the emperor himself. It included: Prince Orlov, Count Lanskoy, Count Bludov, Minister of Finance Brock, Count V.F. Adlerberg, Prince V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, Prince P.P. Gagarin, Baron M.A. Korf and Ya.I. Rostovtsev. The purpose of the committee was designated as “discussion of measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.” Thus, the government tried to get initiative from the nobility in resolving this issue. The word “liberation” had not yet been spoken. But the committee acted very sluggishly. More precise actions began to be implemented later.

In February 1858. The Secret Committee was renamed the “Main Committee on Landowner Peasants Emerging from Serfdom,” and a year later (March 4, 1859) Editorial Commissions were established under the committee, which were responsible for reviewing materials prepared by provincial committees and drafting a law on the emancipation of peasants . There were two opinions here: the majority of landowners proposed to release the peasants without any land at all or with small plots, while the liberal minority proposed to release them with land for ransom. At first, Alexander II shared the point of view of the majority, but then came to the conclusion that it was necessary to allocate land to the peasants. Usually historians associate this decision with the strengthening of the peasant movement: the Tsar was afraid of a repetition of the “Pugachevism.” But an equally important role here was played by the presence in the government of an influential group called “liberal bureaucracy.”

The draft “Regulations on Peasants” was practically prepared at the end of August 1859, but for some time it was subject to minor corrections and clarifications. In October 1860, the “Editing Commissions”, having completed their work, transferred the project to the Main Committee, where it was again discussed and underwent further changes, but in favor of the landowners. On January 28, 1861, the project was submitted to the final authority - the State Council, which accepted them with some changes, in the sense of reducing the size of the peasant plot.

Finally, on February 19, 1861, the “Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom,” which included 17 legislative acts, were signed by Alexander II. On the same day, the manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants” followed, which proclaimed the liberation of 22.6 million peasants from serfdom.

The “Provisions” applied to 45 provinces of European Russia, in which there were 112,000 landowner estates. First of all, it was declared obligatory for the landowner to provide his former peasants, in addition to the estate land, with arable and haymaking land in certain amounts. Secondly, it was declared obligatory for peasants to accept the allotment and keep in their use, for the duties established in favor of the landowner, the worldly land allocated to them for the first nine years (until February 19, 1870). After nine years, individual members of the community were given the right to both leave it and refuse to use field lands and lands if they bought out their estate; society itself also receives the right not to accept for its use such plots that individual peasants refuse. Thirdly, with regard to the size of the peasant allotment and the payments associated with it, according to general rules, it is customary to base it on voluntary agreements between landowners and peasants, for which purpose a statutory charter must be concluded through the mediation of the peace intermediaries established by law, their congresses and provincial presences in peasant affairs, and in the western provinces - and special verification commissions.

The “regulations,” however, were not limited to the rules for allocating land to peasants for permanent use, but made it easier for them to buy out the allocated plots of land using a government buyout operation, and the government lent the peasants a certain amount for the lands they were purchasing, with payment in installments for 49 years and , issuing this amount to the landowner in government interest-bearing securities, took over all further settlements with the peasants. Upon approval by the government of the redemption transaction, all obligatory relations between the peasants and the landowner ceased and the latter entered the category of peasant owners.

The “provisions” were gradually extended to the palace, appanage, assigned and state peasants.

But as a result of this, the peasantry remained bound by the community, and the land allocated to them was clearly insufficient to meet the needs of the ever-growing population. The peasant remained completely dependent on the rural community (the former “world”), which, in turn, was completely controlled by the authorities; personal plots were transferred into the ownership of peasant societies, which periodically “equalized” them to redistribute them.

In the spring and summer of 1861, the peasants, who did not receive “full freedom” as they expected, organized many uprisings. Indignation was caused by such facts as, for example: for two years the peasants remained subordinate to the landowner, were obliged to pay quitrents and perform corvée, were deprived of a significant part of the land, and those plots that were given to them as property had to be bought back from the landowner. During 1861, 1860 peasant uprisings occurred. One of the largest is considered to be the protests of peasants in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province. Subsequently, disappointment grew with the inconsistency of the reform not only of the former serfs: articles by A. Herzen and N. Ogarev in Kolokol, N. Chernyshevsky in Sovremennik.

2.3 Zemstvo reform

After the peasant “Regulations” in a number of administrative reforms, one of the most important places is occupied, without any doubt, by the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions,” which was published on January 1, 1864.

According to the regulations, classless elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced. They were elected by all classes for a three-year term and consisted of administrative bodies (district and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (district and provincial zemstvo councils). Elections to zemstvo administrative bodies - meetings of councilors (deputies) - were held on the basis of property qualifications, by curiae. The first curia (landowner) consisted of owners of land from 200 to 800 dessiatines or real estate worth from 15,000 rubles. The second curia (urban) united the owners of urban industrial and commercial establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles and owners of real estate of at least 2,000 rubles. Elections for the third curia (rural peasant societies) were multi-level. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils - consisting of a chairman and several members.

Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions; their activities were limited mainly to resolving local issues. They were responsible for public education, for public health, for timely food supplies, for the quality of roads, for insurance, veterinary care and much more.

All this required large funds, so zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes, impose duties on the population, and form zemstvo capital. With its full development, zemstvo activity was supposed to cover all aspects of local life. New forms of local self-government not only made it universal, but also expanded the range of its powers. Self-government became so widespread that it was understood by many as a transition to a representative form of government, so the government soon became noticeable in its desire to keep the activities of zemstvos at the local level, and not allow zemstvo corporations to communicate with each other.

At the end of the 70s, zemstvos were introduced in 35 of the 59 Russian provinces.

2.4 Urban reform (in continuation of the zemstvo reform)

On June 16, 1870, the “City Regulations” were published, according to which elective self-government was introduced in 509 out of 1130 cities - city councils elected for four years. The city duma (administrative body) elected its permanent executive body - the city council, which consisted of the city mayor (also elected for four years) and several members. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city government. City councils were under the control of government officials.

Only residents with property qualifications (mainly owners of houses, commercial and industrial establishments, banks) had the right to vote and be elected to the city duma. The first electoral assembly consisted of large taxpayers who contributed a third of city taxes, the second - smaller ones, paying another third of taxes, and the third - everyone else. In the largest cities, the number of vowels (elected) averaged 5.6% of the residents. Thus, the bulk of the urban population was excluded from participation in city government.

The competence of city self-government was limited to solving purely economic issues (urban improvement, setting up hospitals, schools, taking care of the development of trade, fire safety measures, city taxation).

2.5 Judicial reform

Among the reforms, one of the leading places undoubtedly belongs to judicial reform. This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct impact on the entire structure of state and public life. She introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - the complete separation of the judicial power from the administrative and accusatory power, publicity and openness of the court, the independence of judges, the legal profession and the adversarial procedure of legal proceedings.

The country was divided into 108 judicial districts.

The essence of judicial reform boils down to the following:

the trial is oral and public;

judicial power is separated from accusatory power and belongs to the courts without any participation of administrative power;

the main form of legal proceedings is the adversarial process;

a case on its merits can be dealt with in no more than two instances. Two types of courts were introduced: magistrates and general. Magistrates' courts, represented by the magistrate judge, heard criminal and civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, confirmed by the Senate and could be dismissed only at their own request or by court. The general court consisted of three instances: the district court, the judicial chamber, and the Senate. District courts heard serious civil suits and criminal (jury) cases. The Trial Chambers heard appeals and served as the court of first instance for political and government cases. The Senate was the highest court and could overturn court decisions submitted for cassation.

in cases of crimes entailing penalties associated with the deprivation of all or some rights and benefits of the estate, the determination of guilt is left to jurors selected from local inhabitants of all classes;

clerical secrecy is eliminated;

both for the petition in cases and for the defense of defendants, there are sworn attorneys in the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation.

Judicial statutes extended to 44 provinces and were introduced into them over the course of more than thirty years.

In 1863, a law was passed that abolished corporal punishment with spitzrutens, whips, whips and brands by sentences of civil and military courts. Women were completely exempt from corporal punishment. But rods were preserved for peasants (according to verdicts of volost courts), for exiles, convicts and penal soldiers.

2.6 Military reform

Military administration also underwent changes.

Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed. Humiliating corporal punishment was abolished.

Particular attention was paid to raising the level of general education of army officers through reforms of military educational institutions. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year training period were created. They accepted people of all classes.

In January 1874, all-class conscription was proclaimed. The Highest Manifesto on this occasion said: “Defense of the throne and the Fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject...”. According to the new law, all young people who have reached the age of 21 are conscripted, but the government determines the required number of recruits every year, and by lot takes only this number from the conscripts (usually no more than 20-25% of conscripts were called up for service). The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the conscript's older brother is serving or has served in service were not subject to conscription. Those recruited for service are listed in it: in the ground forces for 15 years: 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in the reserve, in the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in the reserve. For those who have completed primary education, the period of active service is reduced to 4 years, for those who have graduated from a city school - to 3 years, a gymnasium - to one and a half years, and for those who have had a higher education - to six months.

Thus, the result of the reform was the creation of a small peacetime army with a significant trained reserve in case of war.

The military command and control system underwent radical changes in order to strengthen control over the locations of troops. The result of this revision was the “Regulations on Military District Directorates” approved on August 6, 1864. On the basis of this “Regulation”, initially nine military districts were organized, and then (August 6, 1865) four more. Each district has a chief commander, appointed at the highest discretion, bearing the title of commander of the troops of the military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant commander of the troops is also appointed.

By the end of the 19th century, the size of the Russian army was (per 130 million population): officers, doctors and officials - 47 thousand, lower ranks - 1 million 100 thousand. Then these numbers declined and reached 742,000 people, while the military potential was maintained.

In the 60s, at the insistence of the War Ministry, railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870, railway troops appeared. During the 70s, the technical re-equipment of the army was largely completed.

Concern for the defenders of the Motherland was manifested in everything, even in small things. Let’s say that for more than a hundred years (until the 80s of the 19th century), boots were made without distinguishing between the right and left legs. It was believed that during a combat alert, a soldier had no time to think about which boot to put on which foot.

There was a special attitude towards prisoners. Military personnel who were captured and were not in the service of the enemy, upon returning home, received a salary from the state for the entire time they were in captivity. The prisoner was considered a victim. And those who distinguished themselves in battles received military awards. Orders of Russia were especially highly valued. They gave such privileges that they even changed a person’s position in society.

2.7. Reforms in the field of education.

Public education also attracted the attention of the king. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on July 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovkin, a special commission under the main board of schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg University, participated. The charter provided universities with fairly broad autonomy: the election of the rector, deans, and professors was introduced, and the University Council received the right to independently resolve all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. And in connection with the development of universities, science began to develop at a correspondingly rapid pace.

According to the Regulations on Primary Public Schools approved on June 14, 1864, the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people.

On November 19, 1864, a new charter for gymnasiums appeared, which proclaimed equality in admission to all classes. But due to the high fees, this was only available to children of wealthy parents.

Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the previous closed women's institutions, open ones began to be established, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the department of the institutions of Empress Maria. The Ministry of Public Education began to approve similar gymnasiums. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulation on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education was approved. The need for higher women's education led to the establishment of pedagogical courses and higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.

2.8 Press reforms

The press reform also had a profound and beneficial influence on the development of public consciousness.

In 1857, the government put on the agenda the issue of revising the censorship statute. After permission in 1858 to discuss problems of public life and government activities in print, the number of periodicals (1860 – 230) and book titles (1860 – 2,058) increased sharply.

Already in 1862, the main censorship department was closed and part of its responsibilities were assigned to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the other directly to the Minister of Public Education.

On April 6, 1865, the “Temporary Rules on the Press” were approved, which exempted from preliminary censorship original works of at least ten pages, and translated works of at least twenty pages, and some periodicals at the discretion of the Minister of the Interior. For periodicals, a large monetary deposit was additionally required. Official and scientific publications were exempt from censorship.

The “Temporary Rules on the Press” have been in effect virtually unchanged for 40 years.

2.9 Assassination of the Emperor

Emperor Alexander II, who aroused the delight and surprise of enlightened people around the world, also met ill-wishers. Pursuing goals that no one understood, the organizers created a whole series of attempts on the life of the sovereign, who was the pride and glory of Russia. On March 1, 1881, the sovereign, for whom a large population was ready to lay down their lives, died a martyr’s death from a villainous hand that threw an explosive shell.

On this fateful day, Emperor Alexander II decided to make a divorce (the procedure for sending out daily guards for shifts). The path lay along a narrow street formed by the Grand Duchess’s garden, enclosed by a man-sized stone fence and the grating of the Catherine Canal. The area is very impassable, and if it is true that the sovereign chose it in view of the anonymous threats he received, then it is difficult to imagine why an ambush awaited him on this road, unless it was because they noticed a large number of police on it, compared to the usual. Be that as it may, but when the sovereign's carriage reached the Theater Bridge, there was an explosion that broke open the back of the carriage, which immediately stopped. The Emperor came out of it unharmed, but a thrown bomb mortally wounded one of the guards, who was galloping behind, and a sapper officer walking along the sidewalk along the stone wall of the Mikhailovsky Garden. The sovereign’s coachman, sensing trouble, turned to him from the box: “Let’s go, sovereign!” The police chief, who was galloping behind, jumped out of the sleigh with the same request to go faster. But the emperor did not listen and took a few steps back: “I want to see my wounded.” At this time, the crowd managed to stop the healthy fellow who threw the bomb. The Emperor turned to him: “So it was you who wanted to kill me?” But he was unable to finish his sentence when the second bomb exploded in front of him, and he fell down with the words: “Help.” They rushed to him, lifted him up, put him in the sleigh of the police chief (who himself received 45 wounds from small bomb fragments, but not a single fatal one) and drove away. A little over an hour later, at 3:35 pm, Tsar Alexander II died in the Winter Palace.

The outstanding Russian philosopher V.V. Rozanov called the assassination of the emperor “a cross between Madness and Meanness.”

The political testament of Alexander II was destroyed. Alexander III, aware of his past errors and in an effort to return to the ideal of the Tsars of Moscow, addressed the people with a manifesto, which affirmed the inviolability of autocratic power and the exclusive responsibility of the autocrat before God.

The Russian Empire thus returned to the old traditional paths on which it had once found glory and prosperity.

Conclusion

Alexander II left a deep mark on history; he managed to do what other autocrats were afraid to undertake - the liberation of peasants from serfdom. We still enjoy the fruits of his reforms to this day.

The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale only to the reforms of Peter I. The Tsar-Reformer carried out truly grandiose transformations without social cataclysms and fratricidal war.

With the abolition of serfdom, commercial and industrial activity “resurrected”, a flow of workers poured into the cities, and new areas for entrepreneurship opened up. Former connections between cities and counties were restored and new ones were created.

The fall of serfdom, the equalization of everyone before the court, the creation of new liberal forms of social life led to personal freedom. And the feeling of this freedom aroused the desire to develop it. Dreams were created of establishing new forms of family and social life.

During his reign, Russia firmly strengthened its relations with European powers and resolved numerous conflicts with neighboring countries.

The tragic death of the emperor greatly changed the further course of history, and it was this event that led, 35 years later, Russia to death, and Nicholas II to a martyr’s wreath

The transformations carried out during the reign of Alexander II had important consequences for Russia at that time. Not only the descendants, but also the emperor’s contemporaries noted both the positive and negative significance of Alexander 2’s reforms for the development of statehood.

The inevitability of reforms

Immediately after ascending the throne in February 1855 - the day after the death of Emperor Nicholas 2's father - Alexander 2 made it clear to his subjects that he understood perfectly well at what time he would have to rule and in what condition the country would be handed to him. He stated this in his first speech as emperor to members of the State Council. The socio-political situation in Russia at that time was far from stable and progressively developing. It was necessary to quickly resolve a number of rather complex internal and external political issues in order to lead the country out of the crisis.

From the abolition of serfdom to the education of peasant children

Emperor Alexander 2 went down in history under the name “Liberator”. which was carried out under him, somewhat overshadowed the rest of the transformations of his reign, and there were many of them. The same reform of public education of Alexander 2 - Why is there no reason to give him the name “Enlightener”?

Among the intelligentsia, in addition to the women's issue, the consequences of the exodus of peasants from the landowners and their future fate were discussed. Ideas about the needs of organization for peasant children gave rise to virtually no controversy - the enlightened minds of the state recognized the need for their education unconditionally. Many cited the genius of Russian science Mikhail Lomonosov as an example, fate

which was so amazing and unique. Alexander II also had deep respect for him. Educational reforms were supposed to open the way to the world of knowledge for many peasant children. A great supporter of education among the people was I.S. Turgenev, who proposed his project for creating a literacy committee, which was approved by the emperor.

Historical significance of the reforms introduced during the reign of Alexander

In addition to accepting and signing new educational statutes and carrying out a complete educational reform, among his achievements there are other important transformations that affected the entire Russian society. In 1862-1863, changes in the management of the state's financial resources were adopted, and in 1865, the law on the press was adopted. Reforms - self-government, judicial, military - were accepted by society in different ways, but their necessity was recognized by everyone. Even if not everything was implemented as planned, it is difficult not to recognize the very fact of the transformations and the positive significance of the reforms of Alexander 2 for the further development of the state. Although some of them are given different assessments to this day, Russia became stronger both in the domestic and foreign policy arena in the era of Alexander 2.