Biology terms 7. Biology - terms. Methods of knowledge of living nature
Autolyse, autolysis, self-digestion of tissues, cells or their parts under the action of enzymes in animals, plants and microorganisms.
Autotrophic organisms autotrophs, organisms that use carbon dioxide as the sole or main source of carbon to build their bodies and have both an enzyme system for assimilating carbon dioxide and the ability to synthesize all the components of the cell. Autotrophic organisms include terrestrial green plants, algae, phototrophic bacteria capable of photosynthesis, as well as some bacteria that use the oxidation of inorganic substances - chemoautotrophs.
Adenosine diphosphate, ADP, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and two phosphoric acid units. Being an acceptor of phosphoryl group in the processes of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, as well as phosphorylation at the substrate level and a biochemical precursor of ATP - a universal energy accumulator, adenosine diphosphate plays an important role in the energy of a living cell.
Adenosine monophosphate, AMP, adenylic acid, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and one phosphoric acid residue. In the body, adenine monophosphate is found in RNA, coenzymes and in free form.
Adenosine triphosphate, ATP, adenylpyrophosphoric acid, a nucleotide containing adenine, ribose and three phosphoric acid residues; a universal carrier and main accumulator of chemical energy in living cells, released during the transfer of electrons in the respiratory chain after the oxidative breakdown of organic substances.
Aleurone grains(from the Greek aleuron - flour), grains of storage protein in the cells of the storage tissues of the seeds of legumes, buckwheat, cereals and other plants. They are found in the form of amorphous or crystalline deposits (from 0.2 to 20 microns) of various shapes and structures. They are formed during seed ripening from drying vacuoles and are surrounded by an elementary membrane-tonoplast. Large complex aleurone grains consist of a protein crystalloid and a non-protein part (phytin), some of them containing calcium oxalate crystals. When seeds germinate, aleurone grains swell and undergo enzymatic breakdown, the products of which are used by the growing parts of the embryo.
Allele(from the Greek allelon - each other, mutually), allelomorph, one of the possible structural states of a gene. Any change in the structure of a gene as a result of mutations or due to intragenic recombinations in heterozygotes for two mutant alleles leads to the appearance of new alleles of this gene (the number of alleles for each gene is almost incalculable). The term “allele” was proposed by V. Johansen (1909). Different alleles of the same gene can lead to the same or different phenotypic effects, which has given rise to the concept of multiple allelism.
Amyloplasts(from the Greek amylon - starch and plastos - fashioned), plastids (from the group of leucoplasts) of a plant cell that synthesize and accumulate starch.
Amino acids, organic (carboxylic) acids, usually containing one or two amino groups (-NH 2). About twenty amino acids are usually involved in the construction of protein molecules. The specific sequence of alternation of amino acids in peptide chains, determined by the genetic code, determines the primary structure of the protein.
Amitosis, direct division of the interphase nucleus by constriction without the formation of chromosomes, outside the mitotic cycle. Amitosis can be accompanied by cell division, and can also be limited to nuclear division without division of the cytoplasm, which leads to the formation of bi- and multinucleated cells. Amitosis occurs in various tissues, in specialized cells doomed to death.
Anabolism(from the Greek anabole - rise), assimilation, a set of chemical processes in a living organism aimed at the formation and renewal of the structural parts of cells and tissues. The opposite of catabolism (dissimilation), it involves the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones with the accumulation of energy. The energy required for biosynthesis (mainly in the form of ATP) is supplied by catabolic reactions of biological oxidation. Anabolism occurs very intensively during the growth period: in animals - at a young age, in plants - during the growing season. The most important anabolic process of planetary significance is photosynthesis.
Anticodon, a section of a transfer RNA molecule consisting of three nucleotides and recognizing the corresponding section of three nucleotides (codon) in the messenger RNA molecule, with which it interacts complementarily. The specific codon-anticodon interaction that occurs on ribosomes during translation ensures the correct arrangement of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain.
Outbreeding(from English out - outside and breeding - breeding), crossing or a system of crossing unrelated forms of the same species. On the basis of outbreeding, heterotic forms are obtained by conducting interline and interbreeding (intervarietal) crossings. Outbreeding is contrasted with inbreeding.
Autosomes, all chromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants and fungi, with the exception of sex chromosomes.
Acidophilia, the ability of cellular structures to be stained with acidic dyes (eosomin, acid fuchsin, picric acid, etc.) due to the basic (alkaline) properties of the staining structures.
Aerobic organisms aerobes (from the Greek aer - air and bios - life), organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment, which they use as an oxidizing agent. All plants, most protozoa and multicellular animals, almost all fungi, i.e., belong to aerobic organisms. the vast majority of known species of living things.
basal body, kinetosome (corpusculum basale), an intracellular structure of eukaryotes that lies at the base of cilia and flagella and serves as a support for them. The ultrastructure of basal bodies is similar to the ultrastructure of centrioles.
Basophilia, the ability of cellular structures to be stained with basic (alkaline) dyes (azur, pyronine, etc.), due to the acidic properties of the staining components of the cell, mainly RNA. An increase in cell basophilia usually indicates intense protein synthesis occurring in it. Basophilia is characteristic of growing, regenerating, tumor tissues.
Basophils, cells containing granular structures in the protoplasm that are stained with basic dyes. The term “basophils” refers to one of the types of granular leukocytes (granulocytes) in the blood (normally, basophils in humans make up 0.5-1% of all leukocytes), as well as one of the types of cells of the anterior pituitary gland.
Backcross(from English back - back, back and cross - crossing), return crossing, crossing of a first-generation hybrid with one of the parent forms or a form similar in genotype.
Squirrels, proteins, high-molecular organic compounds built from amino acid residues. They play a primary role in life, performing numerous functions in their structure, development and metabolism. The molecular weight of proteins ranges from about 5000 to many millions. The infinite variety of protein molecules (proteins usually include 20 a-L-amino acids), due to the different sequence of amino acid residues and the length of the polypeptide chain, determines the differences in their spatial structure, chemical and physical properties. Depending on the shape of the protein molecule, fibrillar and globular proteins are distinguished, from the functions they perform - structural, catalytic (enzymes), transport (hemoglobin, ceruloplasmin), regulatory (some hormones), protective (antibodies, toxins), etc.; from the composition - simple proteins (proteins consisting only of amino acids) and complex (proteins, which, along with amino acids, include carbohydrates - glycoproteins, lipids - lipoproteins, nucleic acids - nucleoproteins, metals - metalloproteins, etc.); depending on solubility in water, solutions of neutral salts, alkalis, acids and organic solvents - albumins, globulins, glutelins, histones, protamines, prolamines. The biological activity of proteins is due to their unusually flexible, plastic and at the same time strictly ordered structure, which makes it possible to solve problems of recognition at the molecular level, as well as to carry out subtle regulatory effects. The following levels of structural organization of proteins are distinguished: primary structure (sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain); secondary (laying of the polypeptide chain into a-helical regions and structural formations); tertiary (three-dimensional spatial packaging of a polypeptide chain) and quaternary (association of several individual polypeptide chains into a single structure). The primary structure of the protein is the most stable; the rest are easily destroyed by increased temperature, sudden changes in the pH of the environment and other influences. This violation is called denaturation and, as a rule, is accompanied by a loss of biological properties. The primary structure of a protein determines the secondary and tertiary structure, i.e. self-assembly of a protein molecule. Proteins in the cells of organisms are constantly renewed. The need for their constant renewal underlies metabolism. Nucleic acids play a decisive role in protein biosynthesis. Proteins are the primary products of genes. The sequence of amino acids in proteins reflects the sequence of nucleotides in nucleic acids.
Bivalent(from Latin bi-, in compound words - double, double and valent - strong), a pair of homologous chromosomes connected (conjugated) to each other in meiosis. It is formed at the zygotene stage and persists until anaphase of the first division. In the bivalent between the chromosomes, X-shaped figures are formed - chiasmata, which hold the chromosomes in the complex. The number of bivalents is usually equal to the haploid number of chromosomes.
Bio...(from the Greek bios - life), part of complex words corresponding in meaning to the words “life”, “living organism” (biography, hydrobios) or the word “biological” (biocatalysis, biophysics).
biogenetic law a generalization in the field of relationships between ontogenesis and phylogeny of organisms, established by F. Muller (1864) and formulated by E. Haeckel (1866): the ontogeny of any organism is a brief and condensed repetition (recapitulation) of the phylogeny of a given species.
Nutrients, chemical elements that are constantly included in the composition of organisms and are necessary for their life. Living cells usually contain traces of almost all the chemical elements present in the environment, but about 20 are necessary for life. The most important nutrients are oxygen (accounts for about 70% of the mass of organisms), carbon (18%), hydrogen (10%), nitrogen , potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium. These so-called universal biogenic elements are present in the cells of all organisms. Some biogenic elements are important only for certain groups of living beings (for example, boron and other biogenic elements are necessary for plants, vanadium for ascidians, etc.).
Biological membranes(Latin membrana - skin, shell, membrane), structures limiting cells (cellular, or plasma membranes) and intracellular organelles (membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.). They contain lipids, proteins, heterogeneous macromolecules (glycoproteins, glycolipids) and, depending on the function performed, numerous minor components (coenzymes, nucleic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, inorganic ions, etc.). The main functions of biological membranes are barrier, transport, regulatory and catalytic.
Fermentation, anaerobic enzymatic redox process of transformation of organic substances, through which organisms obtain the energy necessary for life. Compared to processes occurring in the presence of oxygen, fermentation is an evolutionarily earlier and energetically less favorable form of extracting energy from nutrients. Animals, plants and many microorganisms are capable of fermentation (some bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa grow only due to the energy obtained during fermentation).
Vacuoles(French vacuole from Latin vacuus - empty), cavities in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, bounded by a membrane and filled with liquid. In the cytoplasm of protozoa there are digestive vacuoles containing enzymes and contractile vacuoles that perform the functions of osmoregulation and excretion. Multicellular animals are characterized by digestive and autophagy vacuoles, which are part of the group of secondary lysosomes and contain hydrolytic enzymes.
In plants, vacuoles, derivatives of the endoplasmic reticulum, are surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane - the tonoplast. The entire system of vacuoles in a plant cell is called a vacuome, which in a young cell is represented by a system of tubules and vesicles; As the cell grows and differentiates, they enlarge and merge into one large central vacuole, occupying 70-95% of the volume of the mature cell. Cell sap of the vacuole is a watery liquid with a pH of 2-5, containing organic and inorganic salts (phosphates, oxalates, etc.), sugars, amino acids, proteins, end or toxic metabolic products (tannins, glycosides, alkaloids) dissolved in water. some pigments (for example, anthocyanins). Functions of vacuoles: regulation of water-salt metabolism, maintenance of turgor pressure in the cell, accumulation of low molecular weight water-soluble metabolites, storage substances and removal of toxic substances from metabolism.
Spindle, achromatin spindle, a system of microtubules in a dividing cell that ensures the segregation of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis. The spindle is formed in prometaphase and disintegrates in telophase.
Cell inclusions, components of the cytoplasm, which are deposits of substances temporarily removed from metabolism or its final products. The specificity of cell inclusions is associated with the specialization of the corresponding cells, tissues and organs. The most common trophic inclusions of cells are drops of fat, lumps of glycogen, and yolk in eggs. In plant cells, cell inclusions are mainly composed of starch and aleurone grains and lipid droplets. Cell inclusions also include secretory granules in the glandular cells of animals, crystals of certain salts (mainly calcium oxalates) in plant cells. A special type of cell inclusions - residual bodies - are products of lysosome activity.
Gas exchange, a set of gas exchange processes between the body and the environment; consists of the body consuming oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide, a small amount of other gaseous substances and water vapor. The biological significance of gas exchange is determined by its direct participation in metabolism, the transformation of the chemical energy of absorbed nutritional products into the energy necessary for the life of the body.
Gamete(from the Greek gamete - wife, gametes - husband), sex cell, reproductive cell of animals and plants. The gamete ensures the transmission of hereditary information from parents to offspring. The gamete has a haploid set of chromosomes, which is ensured by the complex process of gametogenesis. Two gametes fuse during fertilization to form a zygote with a diploid set of chromosomes, which gives rise to a new organism.
Gametogenesis, development of germ cells (gametes).
Gametophyte, the sexual generation in the life cycle of plants developing with alternating generations. Formed from a spore, has a haploid set of chromosomes; produces gametes either in ordinary vegetative cells of the thallus (some algae), or in specialized organs of sexual reproduction - gametangia, oogonia and antheridia (lower plants), archegonia and antheridia (higher plants with the exception of flowering plants).
Haploid(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and eidos - species), an organism (cell, nucleus) with a single (haploid) set of chromosomes, which is denoted by the Latin letter n. In many eukaryotic microorganisms and lower plants, the haploid normally represents one of the stages of the life cycle (haplophase, gametophyte), and in some species of arthropods, males are haploid, developing from unfertilized or fertilized eggs, but in which one of the haploid sets of chromosomes is eliminated. In most animals (and humans), only the germ cells are haploid.
Haplont(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and on - being), an organism in which all cells contain a haploid set of chromosomes, and only the zygote is diploid. Some protozoa (for example, coccidia), fungi (oomycetes), many green algae.
Hemicelluloses, a group of polysaccharides from higher plants that, together with cellulose, make up the cell wall.
Gene(from the Greek genos - genus, origin), hereditary factor, functionally indivisible unit of genetic material; a section of a DNA molecule (in some RNA viruses) that encodes the primary structure of a polypeptide, transport and ribosomal RNA molecules, or interacts with a regulatory protein. The set of genes of a given cell or organism constitutes its genotype. The existence of hereditary discrete factors in germ cells was hypothetically postulated by G. Mendel in 1865 and in 1909. V. Johansen called them genes. Further ideas about genes are associated with the development of the chromosomal theory of heredity.
...genesis(from Greek genesis - origin, emergence), part of complex words meaning origin, process of formation, for example ontogenesis, oogenesis.
Genetic information, information about the properties of an organism that is inherited. Genetic information is recorded by the sequence of nucleotides of nucleic acid molecules (DNA, and in some viruses also RNA). Contains information about the structure of all (about 10,000) enzymes, structural proteins and RNA of the cell, as well as the regulation of their synthesis. Various enzymatic complexes of the cell read the genetic information.
Genetic map of a chromosome, diagram of the relative arrangement of genes located in the same linkage group. To compile a genetic map of chromosomes, it is necessary to identify many mutant genes and conduct numerous crosses. The distance between genes on the genetic map of chromosomes is determined by the frequency of crossing over between them. The unit of distance on the genetic map of chromosomes of meiotically dividing cells is the morganide, corresponding to 1% crossing over.
Genetic code, a unified system for recording hereditary information in nucleic acid molecules in the form of a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of living organisms; determines the sequence of inclusion of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain in accordance with the nucleotide sequence of the gene. Implementation of the genetic code in living cells, i.e. the synthesis of the protein encoded by the gene is carried out using two matrix processes - transcription and translation. General properties of the genetic code: triplicity (each amino acid is encoded by a triplet of nucleotides); non-overlap (codons of one gene do not overlap); degeneracy (many amino acid residues are encoded by several codons); unambiguity (each individual codon encodes only one amino acid residue); compactness (between codons and mRNA there are no “commas” - nucleotides not included in the codon sequence of a given gene); universality (the genetic code is the same for all living organisms).
Genetic material cell components, the structural and functional unity of which ensures the storage, implementation and transmission of hereditary information during vegetative and sexual reproduction.
Genome(German Genom), a set of genes characteristic of the haploid set of chromosomes of a given type of organism; basic haploid set of chromosomes.
Genotype, genetic (hereditary) constitution of an organism, the totality of all hereditary inclinations of a given cell or organism, including alleles of genes, the nature of their physical linkage in chromosomes and the presence of chromosomal structures.
Gene pool, a set of genes that are present in individuals of a given population, group of populations or species.
Heterogamy, 1) type of sexual process, male and female gametes that merge during fertilization are different in shape and size. Higher plants and multicellular animals, as well as some fungi, are characterized by oogamy; In relation to the copulating and conjugating individuals of a number of protozoa during the sexual process, the term “anisogamy” is used. 2) Change in the function of male and female flowers or their location on the plant (as an anomaly).
Heterozygote, an organism (cell) in which homologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternative forms) of a particular gene. Heterozygosity, as a rule, determines the high viability of organisms and their good adaptability to changing environmental conditions and is therefore widespread in natural populations.
Heterotrophic organisms heterotrophs, organisms that use exogenous organic substances as a carbon source. As a rule, these same substances also serve as a source of energy for them (organotrophy). Heterotrophic organisms, as opposed to autotrophic organisms, include all animals, fungi, most bacteria, as well as non-chlorophyllous land plants and algae.
Heterochromatin, areas of chromatin that are in a condensed (tightly packed) state throughout the cell cycle. They are intensely stained with nuclear dyes and are clearly visible in a light microscope even during interphase. Heterochromatic regions of chromosomes, as a rule, replicate later than euchromatic ones and are not transcribed, i.e. genetically very inert.
Hyaloplasma, basic plasma, cytoplasmic matrix, complex colorless colloidal system in a cell, capable of reversible transitions from sol to gel.
Glycogen, a branched polysaccharide whose molecules are built from α-D-glucose residues. Molecular weight 10 5 -10 7 . The quickly mobilized energy reserve of many living organisms accumulates in vertebrates mainly in the liver and muscles.
Glycocalyx(from Greek glykys - sweet and Latin callum - thick skin), a glycoprotein complex associated with the outer surface of the plasma membrane in animal cells. The thickness is several tens of nanometers. Extracellular digestion occurs in the glycocalyx, many cell receptors are located in it, and cell adhesion apparently occurs with its help.
Glycolysis, Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas pathway, enzymatic anaerobic process of non-hydrolytic breakdown of carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid. Provides the cell with energy under conditions of insufficient oxygen supply (in obligate anaerobes, glycolysis is the only process that supplies energy), and under aerobic conditions, glycolysis is the stage preceding respiration - the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.
Glycolipids, lipids containing a carbohydrate moiety. Present in the tissues of plants and animals, as well as in some microorganisms. Glycosphingolipids and glycophospholipids are part of biological membranes, play an important role in the phenomena of intercellular adhesion, and have immune properties.
Glycoproteins, glycoproteins, complex proteins containing carbohydrates (from fractions of a percent to 80%). Molecular weight from 15,000 to 1,000,000. Present in all tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms. Glycoproteins that make up the cell membrane are involved in cell ion exchange, immunological reactions, tissue differentiation, intercellular adhesion phenomena, etc.
Globular proteins proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into compact spherical or ellipsoidal structures (globules). The most important representatives of globular proteins are albumins, globulins, protamines, histones, prolamins, glutelins. Unlike fibrillar proteins, which play mainly a supporting or protective role in the body, many globular proteins perform dynamic functions. Globular proteins include almost all known enzymes, antibodies, some hormones and many transport proteins.
Glucose, grape sugar, one of the most common monosaccharides of the hexose group, is the most important source of energy in living cells.
Homogamety, a characteristic of an organism (or group of organisms) that has a pair or several pairs of homologous sex chromosomes in its chromosome set and, as a result, forms gametes with the same set of chromosomes. The sex represented by such individuals is called homogametic. In mammals, fish and some plant species (hemp, hops, sorrel), homogamety is characteristic of the female sex, and in birds, butterflies and some types of strawberries - for the male sex.
Homozygote, a diploid or polyploid cell (individual), the homologous chromosomes of which carry identical alleles of a particular gene.
Homologous chromosomes contain the same set of genes, are similar in morphological characteristics, and conjugate in meiotic prophase. In a diploid set of chromosomes, each pair of chromosomes is represented by two homologous chromosomes, which can differ in the alleles of the genes they contain and exchange sections during the process of crossing over.
Gram-positive bacteria prokaryotes, whose cells stain positively using the Gram method (able to bind basic dyes - methylene blue, gentian violet, etc., and after treatment with iodine, then alcohol or acetone, retain the iodine-dye complex). In modern literature, gram-positive bacteria include bacteria from the division Firmicutes with the so-called gram-positive type of cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria are characterized by: sensitivity to certain antibiotics (not effective on gram-negative bacteria), some features of the composition and structure of the membrane apparatus, the composition of ribosomal proteins, RNA polymerase, the ability to form endospores, true mycelium, and other properties.
Deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA, nucleic acids containing deoxyribose as a carbohydrate component, and adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) as nitrogen bases. They are present in the cells of any organism and are also part of the DNA molecule. The sequence of nucleotides in an unbranched polynucleotide chain is strictly individual and specific for each natural DNA and represents a code form for recording biological information (genetic code).
Division, a form of reproduction of some organisms and many cells that make up the body of multicellular organisms.
Denaturation(from the Latin de- prefix meaning removal, loss and natura - natural properties), loss of natural (native) configuration by molecules of proteins, nucleic acids and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemical treatment, etc. is caused by the rupture of non-covalent (weak) bonds in biopolymer molecules (weak bonds maintain the spatial structure of biopolymers). Usually accompanied by a loss of biological activity - enzymatic, hormonal, etc. It can be complete or partial, reversible and irreversible. Denaturation does not break strong covalent chemical bonds, but due to the unfolding of the globular structure, it makes radicals located inside the molecule accessible to solvents and chemical reagents. In particular, denaturation facilitates the action of proteolytic enzymes, giving them access to all parts of the protein molecule. The reverse process is called renaturation.
Differentiation, the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues, their changes during the development of an individual, leading to the formation of specialized cells, organs and tissues.
Idioblasts(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar), single cells included in any tissue and differing from the cells of this tissue in size, function, shape or internal contents, for example, cells with calcium oxalate crystals or thick-walled supporting cells in the parenchyma of a leaf (sclereids ).
Idiogram(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar and gramma - drawing, line) a unique generalized image of a karyotype in compliance with average quantitative relationships between individual chromosomes and their parts. The idiogram depicts not only the morphological characteristics of chromosomes, but also the features of their primary structure, spiralization, regions of heterochromatin, etc. Comparative analysis of the idiogram is used in karyosystematics to identify and assess the degree of relatedness of different groups of organisms based on the similarities and differences of their chromosome sets.
Isogamy, a type of sexual process in which the fused (copulating) gametes do not differ morphologically, but have different biochemical and physiological properties. Isogamy is widespread in unicellular algae, lower fungi and many protozoa (radiolaria rhizomes, lower gregarines), but is absent in multicellular organisms.
Interphase(from Latin inter -between and Greek phasis -appearance), in dividing cells, the part of the cell cycle between two successive mitoses; in cells that have lost the ability to divide (for example, neurons), the period from the last mitosis to the death of the cell. Interphase also includes the temporary exit of a cell from the cycle (resting state). In interphase, synthetic processes occur, both associated with the preparation of cells for division and ensuring the differentiation of cells and the performance of specific tissue functions. The duration of interphase, as a rule, is up to 90% of the time of the entire cell cycle. A distinctive feature of interphase cells is the despiralized state of chromatin (with the exception of polytene chromosomes of dipterans and some plants, which persist throughout the entire interphase).
Intron(English intron, from intervening sequence - literally intermediate sequence), a section of a gene (DNA) of eukaryotes, which, as a rule, does not carry genetic information related to the synthesis of the protein encoded by this gene; located between other structural gene fragments - exons. The regions corresponding to the intron are presented, along with exons, only in the primary transcript - the precursor of mRNA (pro-mRNA). They are removed from it by special enzymes during mRNA maturation (the exons remain). A structural gene can contain up to several dozen introns (for example, there are 50 introns in the chicken collagen gene) or not contain them at all.
ion channels, supramolecular systems of membranes of a living cell and its organelles, having a lipoprotein nature and ensuring the selective passage of various ions through the membrane. The most common channels are for Na +, K +, Ca 2+ ions; Proton-conducting systems of bioenergy complexes are often classified as ion channels.
Ion pumps, molecular structures built into biological membranes and carrying out the transfer of ions towards a higher electrochemical potential (active transport); function due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis or energy released during the transfer of electrons along the respiratory chain. Active transport of ions underlies the bioenergetics of the cell, the processes of cellular excitation, absorption, and removal of substances from the cell and the body as a whole.
Karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei of male and female germ cells in the nucleus of the zygote during the process of fertilization. During karyogamy, the pairing of homologous chromosomes, carrying genetic information from the maternal and paternal gametes, is restored.
Mitosis(from karyo nucleus and Greek kinesis - movement), division of the cell nucleus.
Karyology, a branch of cytology that studies the cell nucleus, its evolution and individual structures, including sets of chromosomes in different cells - karyotypes (nuclear cytology). Karyology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. after establishing the leading role of the cell nucleus in heredity. The ability to establish the degree of relatedness of organisms by comparing their karyotypes determined the development of karyosystematics.
Karyoplasm, karyolymph, nuclear juice, the contents of the cell nucleus in which the chromati are immersed, as well as various intranuclear granules. After extraction of chromatin by chemical agents, the so-called intranuclear matrix is preserved in the karyoplasm, consisting of protein fibrils 2-3 nm thick, which form a framework in the nucleus connecting the nucleoli, chromatin, pore complexes of the nuclear envelope and other structures.
Karyosystematics, a branch of systematics that studies the structures of the cell nucleus in different groups of organisms. Karyosystematics developed at the intersection of systematics with cytology and genetics and usually studies the structure and evolution of the chromosome set - the karyotype.
Karyotype, a set of characteristics of a chromosome set (number, size, shape of chromosomes) characteristic of a particular species. The constancy of the karyotype of each species is supported by the laws of mitosis and meiosis. Changes in karyotype can occur due to chromosomal and genomic mutations. Typically, a description of the chromosome set is made at the stage of metaphase or late prophase and is accompanied by counting the number of chromosomes, morph
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1. What does anatomy study?
Human anatomy is the science of the form, structure and development of the human body in accordance with gender, age and individual characteristics.
Anatomy studies the external forms and proportions of the human body and its parts, individual organs, their design, and microscopic structure. The tasks of anatomy include the study of the main stages of human development in the process of evolution, the structural features of the body and individual organs at various age periods, as well as in environmental conditions.
2. What does physiology study?
Physiology - (from the Greek physis - nature and logos - word, doctrine), the science of life processes and the mechanisms of their regulation in the human body. Physiology studies the mechanisms of various functions of a living organism (growth, reproduction, respiration, etc.), their relationship with each other, regulation and adaptation to the external environment, origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development of the individual. While solving fundamentally common problems, the physiology of animals and humans and the physiology of plants have differences due to the structure and functions of their objects. Thus, for the physiology of animals and humans, one of the main tasks is the study of the regulatory and integrating role of the nervous system in the body. Prominent physiologists (I.M. Sechenov, N.E. Vvedensky, I.P. Pavlov, A.A. Ukhtomsky, G. Helmholtz, C. Bernard, C. Sherrington, etc.) participated in solving this problem. Plant physiology, which emerged from botany in the 19th century, traditionally studies mineral (root) and aerial (photosynthesis) nutrition, flowering, fruiting, etc. It serves as the theoretical basis of plant growing and agronomy. The founders of Russian plant physiology - A.S. Famintsyn and K.A. Timiryazev. Physiology is related to anatomy, cytology, embryology, biochemistry and other biological sciences.
3. What does hygiene study?
Hygiene - (from the ancient Greek ?gyainYu “healthy”, from?gYaeib “health”) - the science of the influence of the environment on human health.
As a result, hygiene has two objects of study - environmental factors and the body's reaction, and uses the knowledge and methods of physics, chemistry, biology, geography, hydrogeology and other sciences that study the environment, as well as physiology, anatomy and pathophysiology.
Environmental factors are varied and are divided into:
· Physical - noise, vibration, electromagnetic and radioactive radiation, climate, etc.
· Chemical - chemical elements and their compounds.
· Factors of human activity - daily routine, severity and intensity of work, etc.
· Social.
Within the framework of hygiene, the following main sections are distinguished:
· Environmental hygiene - studying the impact of natural factors - atmospheric air, solar radiation, etc.
· Occupational health - studying the impact of the production environment and factors of the production process on humans.
· Communal hygiene - within the framework of which requirements for urban planning, housing, water supply, etc. are developed.
· Food hygiene - studying the meaning and impact of food, developing measures to optimize and ensure food safety (this section is often confused with dietetics).
· Hygiene of children and adolescents - studying the complex effects of factors on a growing organism.
· Military hygiene - aimed at preserving and increasing the combat effectiveness of personnel.
· Personal hygiene is a set of hygienic rules, the implementation of which contributes to the preservation and strengthening of health.
Also some narrow sections: radiation hygiene, industrial toxicology, etc.
Main tasks of hygiene:
· study of the influence of the external environment on the health and performance of people. At the same time, the external environment should be understood as the entire complex complex of natural, social, everyday, production and other factors.
· scientific substantiation and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to improve the health of the external environment and eliminate harmful factors;
· scientific substantiation and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to increase the body’s resistance to possible harmful environmental influences in order to improve health and physical development, and increase performance. This is facilitated by a balanced diet, physical exercise, hardening, a properly organized work and rest schedule, and adherence to personal hygiene rules.
4. What factors that disrupt the balance between the environment and the body include toxins?
Each person’s body contains a certain amount of harmful substances, which are called toxins (from the Greek toxikon - poison). They are divided into two large groups.
Exotoxins are harmful substances of chemical and natural origin that enter the body from the external environment with food, air or water. Most often these are nitrates, nitrites, heavy metals and many other chemical compounds present in almost everything that surrounds us. Living in large industrial cities, working in hazardous industries, and even taking medications containing toxic substances are all, to one degree or another, factors in poisoning the body.
Endotoxins are harmful substances that are formed during the life of the body. There are especially many of them in various diseases and metabolic disorders, in particular in poor bowel function, abnormal liver function, sore throat, pharyngitis, influenza, acute respiratory infections, kidney diseases, allergic conditions, even stress.
Toxins poison the body and disrupt its coordinated functioning - most often they undermine the immune, hormonal, cardiovascular and metabolic systems. This leads to complications in the course of various diseases and hinders recovery. Toxins lead to a decrease in the body's resistance, deterioration of general condition and loss of strength.
One theory of aging suggests that it is caused by the accumulation of toxins in the body. They inhibit the functioning of organs, tissues, cells, and disrupt the flow of biochemical processes in them. This ultimately leads to a deterioration in their functions and, as a consequence, to the aging of the entire organism.
Almost any disease is much easier and easier to treat if toxins do not accumulate and are quickly eliminated from the body.
Nature has endowed humans with various systems and organs capable of destroying, neutralizing and removing harmful substances from the body. These are, in particular, the systems of the liver, kidneys, lungs, skin, gastrointestinal tract, etc. In modern conditions, it is becoming increasingly difficult to cope with aggressive toxins, and a person needs additional reliable and effective help.
5. What factors does radiation relate to?
Radioactivity is the instability of the nuclei of some atoms, which manifests itself in their ability to undergo spontaneous transformation (in scientific terms, decay), which is accompanied by the release of ionizing radiation (radiation). The energy of such radiation is quite high, so it is capable of influencing matter, creating new ions of different signs. It is impossible to cause radiation using chemical reactions; it is a completely physical process.
There are several types of radiation:
· Alpha particles are relatively heavy particles, positively charged, and are helium nuclei.
· Beta particles are ordinary electrons.
· Gamma radiation - has the same nature as visible light, but has a much greater penetrating ability.
· Neutrons are electrically neutral particles that arise mainly near an operating nuclear reactor; access there must be limited.
· X-rays are similar to gamma rays, but have less energy. By the way, the Sun is one of the natural sources of such rays, but protection from solar radiation is provided by the Earth’s atmosphere.
Sources of radiation are nuclear installations (particle accelerators, reactors, X-ray equipment) and radioactive substances. They can exist for a considerable time without manifesting themselves in any way, and you may not even suspect that you are near an object of extreme radioactivity.
The body reacts to the radiation itself, and not to its source. Radioactive substances can enter the body through the intestines (with food and water), through the lungs (during breathing) and even through the skin during medical diagnostics using radioisotopes. In this case, internal exposure occurs. In addition, external radiation has a significant impact on the human body, i.e. The source of radiation is outside the body. The most dangerous, of course, is internal radiation.
The effect of radiation on the human body is called irradiation. During this process, radiation energy is transferred to the cells, destroying them. Radiation can cause all sorts of diseases: infectious complications, metabolic disorders, malignant tumors and leukemia, infertility, cataracts and much more. Radiation has a particularly acute effect on dividing cells, so it is especially dangerous for children.
Radiation refers to those factors of physiological impact on the human body for which the human body does not have receptors. He is simply unable to see, hear, touch or taste it.
The absence of direct cause-and-effect relationships between radiation and the body’s response to its effects allows us to constantly and quite successfully exploit the idea of the danger of the influence of small doses on human health.
6. What factors include viruses?
Viruses (derived from the Latin virus - “poison”) are the smallest microorganisms that do not have a cellular structure, a protein synthesizing system and are capable of reproducing only in the cells of highly organized life forms. It was first used to designate an agent capable of causing an infectious disease in 1728.
The appearance of viruses on the evolutionary tree of life is unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids, small DNA molecules that can be passed from one cell to another, while others may have originated from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, causing genetic diversity.
Viruses spread in many ways: plant viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; Animal viruses can be spread by blood-sucking insects, such organisms are known as vectors. The influenza virus is spread through respiratory droplets from coughing and sneezing. Norovirus and rotavirus, which commonly cause viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted through the fecal-oral route through contact with contaminated food or water. HIV is one of several viruses that are transmitted through sexual contact and through contaminated blood transfusions. Each virus has a specific host specificity, determined by the types of cells it can infect. The host range may be narrow or, if the virus affects many species, wide.
Viruses, although very small and impossible to see, are the subject of scientific study:
For physicians, viruses are the most common causative agents of infectious diseases: influenza, measles, smallpox, tropical fevers.
For a pathologist, viruses are the etiological agents (cause) of cancer and leukemia, the most common and dangerous pathological processes.
For a veterinarian, viruses are the culprits of epizootics (mass diseases) of foot-and-mouth disease, avian plague, infectious anemia and other diseases affecting farm animals.
For an agronomist, viruses are the causative agents of spotted stripe of wheat, tobacco mosaic, yellow dwarf of potatoes and other diseases of agricultural plants.
For the florist, viruses are the factors that cause the amazing colors of tulips to appear.
For the medical microbiologist, viruses are agents that cause the appearance of toxic (poisonous) varieties of diphtheria or other bacteria, or factors that contribute to the development of bacteria resistant to antibiotics.
For an industrial microbiologist, viruses are pests of bacteria, producers, antibiotics and enzymes.
For a geneticist, viruses are carriers of genetic information.
For a Darwinist, viruses are important factors in the evolution of the organic world.
For an ecologist, viruses are factors involved in the formation of related systems of the organic world.
For a biologist, viruses are the simplest forms of life, possessing all its main manifestations.
For a philosopher, viruses are the clearest illustration of the dialectics of nature, a touchstone for polishing such concepts as living and nonliving, part and whole, form and function.
Viruses are the causative agents of the most important diseases of humans, farm animals and plants, and their importance is increasing all the time as the incidence of bacterial, protozoal and fungal diseases decreases.
7. What is homeostasis?
Life is possible only with a relatively small range of deviations of various characteristics of the internal environment - physico-chemical (acidity, osmotic pressure, temperature, etc.) and physiological (blood pressure, blood sugar, etc.) - from a certain average value. The constancy of the internal environment of a living organism is called homeostasis (from the Greek words homoios - similar, identical and stasis - state).
Under the influence of environmental factors, vital characteristics of the internal environment can change. Then reactions occur in the body aimed at restoring them or preventing such changes. These reactions are called homeostatic. When blood is lost, for example, vasoconstriction occurs, preventing a drop in blood pressure. When sugar consumption increases during physical activity, its release into the blood from the liver increases, which prevents blood sugar levels from falling. With an increase in heat production in the body, the skin vessels dilate, and therefore heat transfer increases, which prevents the body from overheating.
Homeostatic reactions are organized by the central nervous system, which regulates the activity of the autonomic and endocrine systems. The latter already directly affect the tone of blood vessels, metabolic rate, and the functioning of the heart and other organs. The mechanisms of the same homeostatic reaction and their effectiveness can be different and depend on many factors, including hereditary ones.
Homeostasis is also called the preservation of constancy of the species composition and number of individuals in biocenoses, the ability of a population to maintain a dynamic balance of genetic composition, which ensures its maximum viability (genetic homeostasis).
8. What is a cytolemma?
The cytolemma is the universal skin of the cell; it performs barrier, protective, receptor, and excretory functions, transports nutrients, transmits nerve impulses and hormones, and connects cells into tissues.
This is the thickest (10 nm) and most complexly organized cell membrane. It is based on a universal biological membrane, covered on the outside with a glycocalyx, and on the inside, on the cytoplasm side, with a submembrane layer. The glycocalyx (3-4 nm thick) is represented by the outer, carbohydrate regions of complex proteins - glycoproteins and glycolipids that make up the membrane. These carbohydrate chains play the role of receptors that ensure that the cell recognizes neighboring cells and intercellular substance and interacts with them. This layer also includes surface and semi-integral proteins, the functional regions of which are located in the supramembrane zone (for example, immunoglobulins). The glycocalyx contains histocompatibility receptors, receptors for many hormones and neurotransmitters.
The submembrane, cortical layer is formed by microtubules, microfibrils and contractile microfilaments, which are part of the cell cytoskeleton. The submembrane layer maintains the shape of the cell, creates its elasticity, and ensures changes in the cell surface. Due to this, the cell participates in endo- and exocytosis, secretion, and movement.
The cytolemma performs many functions:
1) delimiting (the cytolemma separates, delimits the cell from the environment and ensures its connection with the external environment);
2) recognition by this cell of other cells and attachment to them;
3) recognition by the cell of the intercellular substance and attachment to its elements (fibers, basement membrane);
4) transport of substances and particles into and out of the cytoplasm;
5) interaction with signaling molecules (hormones, mediators, cytokines) due to the presence of specific receptors for them on its surface;
6) ensures cell movement (formation of pseudopodia) due to the connection of the cytolemma with the contractile elements of the cytoskeleton.
The cytolemma contains numerous receptors through which biologically active substances (ligands, signaling molecules, first messengers: hormones, mediators, growth factors) act on the cell. Receptors are genetically determined macromolecular sensors (proteins, glyco- and lipoproteins) built into the cytolemma or located inside the cell and specialized in the perception of specific signals of a chemical or physical nature. Biologically active substances, when interacting with a receptor, cause a cascade of biochemical changes in the cell, transforming into a specific physiological response (change in cell function).
All receptors have a general structural plan and consist of three parts: 1) supramembrane, which interacts with the substance (ligand); 2) intramembrane, carrying out signal transfer and 3) intracellular, immersed in the cytoplasm.
9. What is the significance of the nucleus?
The nucleus is an essential component of the cell (exception: mature red blood cells), where the bulk of the DNA is concentrated.
Two important processes take place in the nucleus. The first of them is the synthesis of the genetic material itself, during which the amount of DNA in the nucleus doubles (for DNA and RNA, see Nucleic acids). This process is necessary so that during subsequent cell division (mitosis) the two daughter cells end up with the same amount of genetic material. The second process is transcription - the production of all types of RNA molecules, which, migrating into the cytoplasm, provide the synthesis of proteins necessary for the life of the cell.
The nucleus differs from the surrounding cytoplasm in its refractive index. That is why it can be seen in a living cell, but usually special dyes are used to identify and study the nucleus. The Russian name “nucleus” reflects the spherical shape most characteristic of this organelle. Such nuclei can be seen in liver cells and nerve cells, but in smooth muscle and epithelial cells the nuclei are oval. There are kernels of more bizarre shapes.
The nuclei that are most dissimilar in shape consist of the same components, i.e. have a general structure plan. In the nucleus there are: nuclear envelope, chromatin (chromosomal material), nucleolus and nuclear juice. Each nuclear component has its own structure, composition and function.
The nuclear envelope includes two membranes located at some distance from each other. The space between the membranes of the nuclear envelope is called perinuclear. There are holes in the nuclear membrane - pores. But they are not end-to-end, but filled with special protein structures called the nuclear pore complex. Through pores, RNA molecules exit the nucleus into the cytoplasm, and proteins move towards them into the nucleus. The nuclear envelope membranes themselves ensure the diffusion of low-molecular compounds in both directions.
Chromatin (from the Greek word chroma - color, paint) is the substance of chromosomes, which in the interphase nucleus are much less compact than during mitosis. When cells are stained, they are painted brighter than other structures.
In the nuclei of living cells, the nucleolus is clearly visible. It has the appearance of a round or irregularly shaped body and clearly stands out against the background of a rather homogeneous nucleus. The nucleolus is a formation that occurs in the nucleus on those chromosomes that are involved in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA. The region of the chromosome that forms the nucleolus is called the nucleolar organizer. Not only RNA synthesis occurs in the nucleolus, but also the assembly of ribosomal subparticles. The number of nucleoli and their sizes may vary. The products of the activity of chromatin and the nucleolus initially enter the nuclear sap (karyoplasm).
For cell growth and reproduction, the nucleus is absolutely necessary. If the main part of the cytoplasm is experimentally separated from the nucleus, then this cytoplasmic lump (cyplast) can exist without a nucleus for only a few days. The nucleus, surrounded by the narrowest rim of cytoplasm (karyoplast), completely retains its viability, gradually ensuring the restoration of organelles and the normal volume of cytoplasm. However, some specialized cells, such as mammalian red blood cells, function for a long time without a nucleus. It is also deprived of platelets - blood platelets, formed as fragments of the cytoplasm of large cells - megakaryocytes. Sperm have a nucleus, but it is completely inactive.
10. What is fertilization?
Fertilization is the fusion of a male reproductive cell (sperm) with a female (ovum), leading to the formation of a zygote, which gives rise to a new organism. Fertilization is preceded by complex processes of maturation of the egg (oogenesis) and sperm (spermatogenesis). Unlike sperm, the egg does not have independent mobility. A mature egg leaves the follicle into the abdominal cavity in the middle of the menstrual cycle at the time of ovulation and enters the fallopian tube thanks to its suction peristaltic movements and the flickering of cilia. The period of ovulation and the first 12-24 hours. after it they are most favorable for fertilization. If it does not happen, then in the following days regression and death of the egg occurs.
During sexual intercourse, sperm (seminal fluid) enters the woman's vagina. Under the influence of the acidic environment of the vagina, some sperm die. The most viable of them penetrate through the cervical canal into the alkaline environment of its cavity and 1.5-2 hours after sexual intercourse reach the fallopian tubes, in the ampullary section of which fertilization occurs. Many sperm rush towards the mature egg, but, as a rule, only one of them penetrates through the zona pellucida covering it, the nucleus of which merges with the nucleus of the egg. From the moment the germ cells merge, pregnancy begins. A single-celled embryo is formed, a qualitatively new cell - a zygote, from which, as a result of a complex development process during pregnancy, the human body is formed. The sex of the unborn child depends on what type of sperm was fertilized in the egg, which is always the carrier of the X chromosome. If the egg was fertilized by a sperm with an X (female) sex chromosome, a female embryo (XX) is created. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y (male) sex chromosome, a male embryo (XY) develops. There is evidence that sperm containing the Y chromosome are less durable and die faster than sperm containing the X chromosome. Obviously, in this regard, the likelihood of conceiving a boy increases if fertilizing sexual intercourse occurs during ovulation. If sexual intercourse took place several days before ovulation, there is a greater chance that fertilization will occur. Eggs contain sperm containing the X chromosome, i.e. there is a higher chance of having a girl.
The fertilized egg, moving along the fallopian tube, undergoes crushing, passes through the stages of blastula, morula, blastocyst and reaches the uterine cavity on the 5-6th day from the moment of fertilization. At this point, the embryo (embryoblast) is covered on the outside with a layer of special cells - trophoblast, which provides nutrition and implantation (incorporation) into the uterine mucosa, called decidual during pregnancy. The trophoblast secretes enzymes that dissolve the uterine lining, which facilitates the immersion of the fertilized egg into its thickness.
11. What characterizes the crushing stage?
Cleavage is a series of rapid divisions of the zygote without intermediate growth.
After combining the genomes of the egg and sperm, the zygote immediately begins mitotic division - the development of a multicellular diploid organism begins. The first stage of this development is called cleavage. It has a number of features. First of all, in most cases, cell division does not alternate with cell growth. The number of cells of the embryo increases, but its total volume remains approximately equal to the volume of the zygote. During cleavage, the volume of the cytoplasm remains approximately constant, but the number of nuclei, their total volume, and especially the surface area increase. This means that during the period of fragmentation, normal (i.e., characteristic of somatic cells) nuclear-plasma relations are restored. During cleavage, mitoses follow one another especially quickly. This occurs due to the shortening of the interphase: the Gx period is completely eliminated, and the G2 period is also shortened. Interphase practically boils down to the S-period: as soon as the entire DNA is doubled, the cell enters mitosis.
The cells formed during cleavage are called blastomeres. In many animals, they divide synchronously for quite a long time. True, sometimes this synchrony is broken early: for example, in roundworms at the stage of four blastomeres, and in mammals the first two blastomeres divide asynchronously. In this case, the first two divisions usually occur in the meridian planes (pass through the animal-vegetative axis), and the third division - in the equatorial plane (perpendicular to this axis).
Another characteristic feature of cleavage is the absence of signs of tissue differentiation in blastomeres. Cells may already “know” their future fate, but do not yet have neural, muscle or epithelial signs.
12. What is implantation?
physiology cytolemma zygote
Implantation (from Latin in (im) - in, inside and plantatio - planting, transplantation), attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus in mammals with intrauterine development and in humans.
There are three types of implantation:
· Central implantation - when the embryo remains in the lumen of the uterus, attaching to its wall either with the entire surface of the trophoblast, or only part of it (in chiropterans, ruminants).
· Eccentric implantation - the embryo penetrates deep into the fold of the uterine mucosa (the so-called uterine crypt), the walls of which then grow together above the embryo and form an implantation chamber isolated from the uterine cavity (in rodents).
· Interstitial implantation - characteristic of higher mammals (primates and humans) - the embryo actively destroys the cells of the uterine mucosa and penetrates into the resulting cavity; The uterine defect heals, and the embryo is completely immersed in the wall of the uterus, where its further development occurs.
13. What is gastrulation?
Gastrulation is a complex process of morphogenetic changes, accompanied by reproduction, growth, directed movement and differentiation of cells, resulting in the formation of germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) - the sources of the primordia of tissues and organs. The second stage of ontogenesis after fragmentation. During gastrulation, the movement of cell masses occurs with the formation of a two-layer or three-layer embryo from the blastula - the gastrula.
The type of blastula determines the method of gastrulation.
The embryo at this stage consists of clearly separated layers of cells - germ layers: outer (ectoderm) and inner (endoderm).
In multicellular animals, except coelenterates, in parallel with gastrulation or, as in the lancelet, after it, the third germ layer appears - the mesoderm, which is a set of cellular elements located between the ectoderm and endoderm. Due to the appearance of mesoderm, the embryo becomes three-layered.
In many groups of animals, it is at the gastrulation stage that the first signs of differentiation appear. Differentiation (differentiation) is the process of the emergence and growth of structural and functional differences between individual cells and parts of the embryo.
The nervous system, sensory organs, skin epithelium, and tooth enamel are formed from the ectoderm; from the endoderm - the epithelium of the midgut, digestive glands, epithelium of the gills and lungs; from the mesoderm - muscle tissue, connective tissue, circulatory system, kidneys, gonads, etc.
In different groups of animals, the same germ layers give rise to the same organs and tissues.
Methods of gastrulation:
· Intussusception occurs by invagination of the wall of the blastula into the blastocoel; characteristic of most groups of animals.
· Delamination (characteristic of coelenterates) - cells located outside are transformed into the epithelial layer of ectoderm, and the endoderm is formed from the remaining cells. Typically, delamination is accompanied by divisions of blastula cells, the plane of which runs “tangentially” to the surface.
· Immigration - migration of individual cells of the blastula wall into the blastocoel.
· Unipolar - on one section of the blastula wall, usually at the vegetative pole;
· Multipolar - in several areas of the blastula wall.
· Epiboly - the overgrowth of some cells by rapidly dividing other cells or the overgrowth of cells by the internal mass of the yolk (with incomplete crushing).
· Involution is the turning into the embryo of an increasing in size outer layer of cells, which spreads along the inner surface of the cells remaining outside.
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Biological terms of cytology
Homeostasis(homo - identical, stasis - state) - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of a living system. One of the properties of all living things.
Phagocytosis(phago - devour, cytos - cell) - large solid particles. Many protozoans feed by phagocytosis. With the help of phagocytosis, immune cells destroy foreign microorganisms.
Pinocytosis(pino - drink, cytos - cell) - liquids (together with dissolved substances).
Prokaryotes, or prenuclear (pro - do, karyo - nucleus) - the most primitive structure. Prokaryotic cells do not have formalized, no, genetic information is represented by one circular (sometimes linear) chromosome. Prokaryotes lack membrane organelles, with the exception of photosynthetic organelles in cyanobacteria. Prokaryotic organisms include Bacteria and Archaea.
Eukaryotes, or nuclear (eu - good, karyo - nucleus) - and multicellular organisms that have a formed nucleus. They have a more complex organization compared to prokaryotes.
Karyoplasm(karyo - nucleus, plasma - contents) - the liquid contents of the cell.
Cytoplasm(cytos - cell, plasma - contents) - internal environment of the cell. Consists of hyaloplasm (liquid part) and organoids.
Organoid, or organelle(organ - instrument, oid - similar) - a permanent structural formation of a cell that performs certain functions.
In prophase 1 of meiosis, each of the already twisted bichromatid chromosomes closely approaches its homologous one. This is called conjugation (well, confused with conjugation of ciliates).
A pair of homologous chromosomes that come together is called bivalent.
The chromatid then crosses over with a homologous (non-sister) chromatid on the neighboring chromosome (with which the bivalent is formed).
The place where chromatids intersect is called chiasmata. Chiasmus was discovered in 1909 by the Belgian scientist Frans Alphonse Janssens.
And then a piece of the chromatid breaks off at the site of the chiasm and jumps to another (homologous, i.e., non-sister) chromatid.
Gene recombination has occurred. Result: some genes migrated from one homologous chromosome to another.
Before crossing over, one homologous chromosome possessed genes from the maternal organism, and the second from the paternal one. And then both homologous chromosomes possess the genes of both the maternal and paternal organism.
The meaning of crossing over is this: as a result of this process, new combinations of genes are formed, therefore, there is more heritable variability, and therefore there is a greater likelihood of the emergence of new traits that may be useful.
Mitosis– indirect division of a eukaryotic cell.
The main type of cell division in eukaryotes. During mitosis, there is a uniform, equal distribution of genetic information.
Mitosis occurs in 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase). Two identical cells are formed.
The term was coined by Walter Fleming.
Amitosis– direct, “incorrect” cell division. Robert Remak was the first to describe amitosis. Chromosomes do not spiral, DNA replication does not occur, spindle threads do not form, and the nuclear membrane does not disintegrate. The nucleus is constricted, with the formation of two defective nuclei, with, as a rule, unevenly distributed hereditary information. Sometimes even the cell does not divide, but simply forms a binuclear cell. After amitosis, the cell loses the ability to undergo mitosis. This term was coined by Walter Fleming.
- ectoderm (outer layer),
- endoderm (inner layer) and
- mesoderm (middle layer).
Common amoeba –
protozoan of the Sarcomastigophora type (Sarcoflagellates), class Rhizomes, order Amoeba.
The body does not have a permanent shape. They move with the help of pseudopods - pseudopodia.
They feed by phagocytosis.
Ciliate slipper- heterotrophic protozoan.
Type of ciliates. The organelles of movement are cilia. Food enters the cell through a special organoid - the cellular mouth opening.
There are two nuclei in a cell: large (macronucleus) and small (micronucleus).
Biology Glossary
Abiogenesis is the development of living things from non-living matter in the process of evolution (a hypothetical model of the origin of life).
Acarology is the science that studies mites.
Allele is one of the specific states of a gene (dominant allele, recessive allele).
Albinism is the lack of pigmentation of the skin and its derivatives, caused by a violation of the formation of the melanin pigment. The causes of albinism are varied.
The aminoacial center is the active center in the ribosome where contact between the codon and anticodon occurs.
Amitosis is a direct cell division in which there is no uniform distribution of hereditary material between daughter cells.
Amniotes are vertebrates in which a provisional organ, the amnion (water membrane), is formed during embryogenesis. The development of amniotes occurs on land - in the egg, or in utero (reptiles, birds, mammals, humans).
Amniocentesis is the collection of amniotic fluid containing the cells of the developing fetus. Used for prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases and sex determination.
Anabolia (Superstructure) - the appearance of new characteristics in the later stages of embryonic development, leading to an increase in the duration of ontogenesis.
Analogous organs are organs of animals of different taxonomic groups, similar in structure and the functions they perform, but developing from different embryonic rudiments.
Anamnia is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which chromatids separate to the poles of the cell. In anaphase I of meiosis, it is not the chromatids that separate, but the whole chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, as a result of which each daughter cell ends up with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Developmental anomalies are a violation of the structure and function of organs in the process of individual development.
Antigens are protein substances that, when they enter the body, cause an immunological reaction with the formation of antibodies.
An anticodon is a triplet of nucleotides in a tRNA molecule that contacts an mRNA codon in the aminoacial center of the ribosome.
Antimutagens are substances of various natures that reduce the frequency of mutations (vitamins, enzymes, etc.).
Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins produced in the body in response to the penetration of antigens.
Anthropogenesis is the evolutionary path of human origin and development.
Anthropogenetics is a science that studies issues of heredity and variability in humans.
Aneuploidy is a change in the number of chromosomes in the karyotype (heteroploidy).
Arachnology is the science that studies arachnids.
Aromorphosis is an evolutionary morphofunctional transformation of general biological significance that increases the level of organization of animals.
Archallaxis is changes that occur at different stages of embryonic development and direct phylogeny along a new path.
Archanthropes are a group of ancient people united into one species - homo erectus (straightened man). This species includes Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man and other related forms.
Atavism is the complete development of a rudimentary organ, not typical for a given species.
Autophagy is the process of digestion by a cell of irreversibly changed organelles and areas of the cytoplasm with the help of hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes.
Twins:
Monozygotic - twins that develop from one egg fertilized by one sperm (polyembryony);
Dizygotic (polyzygotic) – twins that develop from two or more eggs fertilized by different sperm (polyovulation).
Hereditary - diseases caused by a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material. There are genetic and chromosomal diseases;
Molecular – diseases caused by gene mutations. In this case, the structure of structural proteins and enzyme proteins may change;
Chromosomal – diseases caused by a violation of the structure or number of chromosomes (autosomes or sex chromosomes) due to chromosomal or genomic mutations;
Wilson-Konovalov (hepatocerebral degeneration) is a molecular disease associated with impaired copper metabolism, which leads to damage to the liver and brain. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;
Galactosemia is a molecular disease associated with impaired carbohydrate metabolism. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;
Sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease based on a gene mutation that leads to a change in the amino acid composition of the hemoglobin B chain. Inherited by the type of incomplete dominance;
Phenylketonuria is a molecular disease caused by a disorder in the metabolism of amino acids and phenylalanine. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
Basal body (kinetosome) - A structure at the base of a flagellum, or cilium, formed by microtubules.
Biogenesis – The origin and development of organisms from living matter.
Developmental biology is a science that arose at the intersection of embryology and molecular biology and studies the structural, functional and genetic foundations of individual development, mechanisms for regulating the vital functions of organisms.
Blastoderm is a collection of cells (blastomeres) that form the wall of the blastula.
Brachydactyly - short fingers. Inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.
Genetic vectors are DNA-containing structures (viruses, plasmids) used in genetic engineering to attach genes and introduce them into a cell.
Viruses are non-cellular life forms; capable of living cells and multiplying in them. They have their own genetic apparatus, represented by DNA or RNA.
Vital staining (intravital) is a method of staining other structures using dyes that do not have a toxic effect on them.
Inclusions are unstable components of the cytoplasm of cells, represented by secretory granules, reserve nutrients, and end products of metabolism.
Degeneracy of the genetic code (redundancy) is the presence in the genetic code of several codons corresponding to one amino acid.
Gametogenesis is the process of formation of mature germ cells (gametes): female gametes - oogenesis, male gametes - spermatogenesis.
Gametes are sex cells with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Haploid cells – cells containing a single set of chromosomes (n)
Gastrocoel is a cavity in a two- or three-layer embryo.
Gastrulation is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a two- or three-layer embryo occurs.
Biohelminths are helminths in the life cycle of which there is a change of hosts or the development of all stages occurs within one organism without exiting into the external environment;
Geohelminths are helminths whose larval stages develop in the external environment (roundworm, roundworm);
Contact-transmitted - helminths, the invasive stage of which can enter the host’s body through contact with a patient (dwarf tapeworm, pinworm).
Hemizygous organism is an organism that has a single allele of the gene being analyzed due to the absence of a homologous chromosome (44+XY).
Hemophilia is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifests itself with a blood clotting disorder.
Gene – Structural unit of genetic information:
Allelic genes are genes localized in identical loci of homologous chromosomes and determining different manifestations of the same trait.
Non-allelic genes - localized in different loci of homologous chromosomes or in non-homologous chromosomes; determine the development of various characteristics;
Regulatory – controlling the work of structural genes, their function is manifested in interaction with enzyme proteins;
Structural – containing information about the polypeptide structure of the chain;
Mobile – capable of moving throughout the cell genome and inserting into new chromosomes; they can change the activity of other genes;
Mosaic - eukaryotic genes consisting of informative (exons) and non-informative (introns) sections;
Modulators are genes that enhance or weaken the action of basic genes;
Mandatory (“housekeeping” genes) – genes encoding proteins synthesized in all cells (histones, etc.);
Specialized (“luxury genes”) – encoding proteins synthesized in individual specialized cells (globins);
Holandric - localized in areas of the Y chromosome that are non-homologous to the X chromosome; determine the development of traits inherited only through the male line;
Pseudogenes – having similar nucleotide sequences to functioning genes, but due to the accumulation of mutations in them, are functionally inactive (part of the alpha and beta globin genes).
Genetics is the science of heredity and variability of organisms. The term was introduced into science in 1906. English geneticist V. Batson.
A genetic map is a conventional image of chromosomes in the form of lines with gene names printed on them and observing the distances between genes, expressed as a percentage of crossing over - morganids (1 morganid = 1% crossing over).
Genetic analysis is a set of methods aimed at studying the heredity and variability of organisms. Includes a hybridological method, a method of accounting for mutations, cytogenetic, population-statistical, etc.
Genetic load is the accumulation in the gene pool of a population of recessive alleles, which in the homozygous state lead to a decrease in the viability of individual individuals and the population as a whole.
The genetic code is a system for “recording” genetic information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.
Genetic engineering is a targeted change in the hereditary program of a cell using molecular genetics methods.
Genocopies are the similarity of phenotypes that have different genetic natures (mental retardation in some molecular diseases).
Genome – the number of genes in a haploid cell, characteristic of a given type of organism.
Genotype is a system of interacting alleles of genes characteristic of a given individual.
Gene pool is the totality of genes of individuals that make up a population.
Geriatrics is a branch of medicine that deals with the development of treatments for older people.
Gerontology is a science that studies the aging processes of organisms.
Geroprotectors are antimutagenic substances that bind free radicals. Slow down the onset of old age and increase life expectancy.
Genetic heterogeneity of populations is the presence in individuals of a given population of several allelic variants (at least two) of one gene. Causes genetic polymorphism of populations.
A heterozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain different alleles of a given gene.
Heteroplody is an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes in a diploid set (monosomy, trisomy).
Heterotopy is a change in the process of evolution of the location of the anlage in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.
Heterochromatin - regions of chromosomes that maintain a spiral state in interphase, are not transcribed. Heterochronies are changes in the process of evolution of the time of formation in the embryogenesis of a particular organ.
A hybrid is a heterozygous organism formed by crossing genetically different forms.
Hypertrichosis – local – a trait linked to the Y chromosome; manifests itself in increased hair growth on the edge of the auricle; is inherited in a recessive manner.
Embryonic histogenesis is the formation of tissues from the material of the germ layers through cell division, their growth and differentiation, migration, integration and intercellular interactions.
The hominid triad is a combination of three characteristics unique to humans:
Morphological: absolute upright posture, development of a relatively large brain, development of a hand adapted for fine manipulation;
Psychosocial – abstract thinking, second signaling system (speech), conscious and purposeful work activity.
A homozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain identical alleles of a given gene.
Homoothermic animals are organisms capable of maintaining a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animals, humans).
Homologous organs are organs that develop from the same embryonic rudiments; their structure may be different depending on the function performed.
Homologous chromosomes are a pair of chromosomes of the same size and structure, one of which is paternal, the other is maternal.
The gonotrophic cycle is a biological phenomenon observed in blood-sucking arthropods, in which the maturation and laying of eggs is closely associated with blood feeding.
A linkage group is a set of genes located on the same chromosome and inherited by linkage. The number of linkage groups is equal to the haploid number of chromosomes. Loss of adhesion occurs during crossing over.
Color blindness is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested by impaired color vision.
Deviation (deviation) is the appearance of new characters in the middle stages of embryonic development, defining a new path of phylogenesis.
Degeneration is an evolutionary change characterized by a simplification of the body’s structure compared to ancestral forms.
Deletion is a chromosomal aberration in which a section of a chromosome is lost.
Determination is the genetically determined ability of embryonic cells only to a certain direction of differentiation.
Diakinesis is the final stage of prophase I of meiosis, during which the process of separation of homologous chromosomes after conjugation is completed.
Divergence is the formation in the process of evolution of several new groups from a common ancestor.
A diploid cell is a cell containing a double set of chromosomes (2n).
Diplotene - stage of prophase I of meiosis - the beginning of the divergence of homologous chromosomes after conjugation.
Sex differentiation is the process of development of sexual characteristics in ontogenesis.
A dominant trait is a trait that manifests itself in a homo- and heterozygous state.
Donor is an organism from which tissue or organs are taken for transplantation.
The tree of life is a schematic representation of the paths of evolutionary development in the form of a tree with branches.
Genetic drift (genetic-automatic processes) – changes in the genetic structure in small populations, expressed in a decrease in genetic polymorphism and an increase in the number of homozygotes.
Cleavage is a period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a multicellular embryo occurs through successive mitotic divisions of blastomeres without increasing their size.
Duplication is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome is duplicated.
Natural selection is a process in which, as a result of the struggle for existence, the fittest organisms survive.
Gill arches (arterial) are blood vessels passing through the gill septa and undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes during the evolution of the circulatory system of vertebrates.
Life cycle - the time of existence of a cell from the moment of its formation until death or division into two daughters as a result of the transition from the G 0 state to the mitotic cycle.
The embryonic period is, in relation to humans, the period of embryogenesis from the 1st to the 8th week of intrauterine development.
The embryonic organizer is a section of the zygote (gray sickle), which largely determines the course of embryogenesis. When the gray sickle is removed, development stops at the cleavage stage.
Zygotene is the stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which homologous chromosomes are combined (conjugated) into pairs (bivalents).
Idioadaptation (allomorphosis) is morphofunctional changes in organisms that do not increase the level of organization, but make a given species adapted to specific living conditions.
Variability is the property of organisms to change certain characteristics in the process of individual development:
Modification – phenotypic changes caused by the influence of environmental factors on the genotype;
Genotypic – variability associated with quantitative and qualitative changes in hereditary material;
Combinative - a type of variability that depends on the recombination of genes and chromosomes in the genotype (meiosis and fertilization);
Mutational – a type of variability associated with a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material (mutations).
Immunosuppression is the suppression of the body’s protective immunological reactions.
Immunosuppressors are substances that suppress the response of the recipient’s immune system to the transplant, helping to overcome tissue incompatibility and engraftment of the transplanted tissue.
Inversion is a chromosomal aberration in which intrachromosomal breaks occur and the excised section is rotated by 180 0.
Embryonic induction is an interaction between parts of the embryo, during which one part (the inducer) determines the direction of development (differentiation) of the other part.
Initiation is a process that ensures the beginning of template synthesis reactions (translation initiation - binding of the AUG codon to tRNA-methionine in the peptide center of the small ribosomal subunit).
Inoculation is the introduction of a pathogen by a vector into a wound with saliva in the bite.
Interphase is the part of the cell cycle during which the cell prepares to divide.
Intron is an uninformative region of a mosaic gene in eukaryotes.
Karyotype is a diploid set of somatic cells, characterized by the number of chromosomes, their structure and size. Species-specific trait.
Housing is a form of symbiosis in which one organism uses another as a home.
Keylons are protein substances that inhibit the mitotic activity of cells. The kinetoplast is a specialized region of the mitochondrion that provides energy for the movement of the flagellum.
The kinetochore is a specialized region of the centromere, in the area of which short spindle microtubules are formed and connections between chromosomes and centrioles are formed.
Classification of chromosomes:
Denver - chromosomes are grouped based on their size and shape. To identify chromosomes, a solid staining method is used;
Parisian - based on the characteristics of the internal structure of chromosomes, which is revealed using differential staining. The same arrangement of segments is found only in homologous chromosomes.
Gene clusters are groups of different genes with related functions (globin genes).
Cell clone is a collection of cells formed from one parent cell through successive mitotic divisions.
Gene cloning is the production of a large number of homogeneous DNA fragments (genes).
Codominance is a type of interaction of allelic genes (in the presence of multiple alleles), when two dominant genes appear in the phenotype independently of each other (IU blood group).
A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule corresponding to an amino acid (sense codon). In addition to sense ones, there are stop and initiation codons.
Colinearity is the correspondence of the order of nucleotides in a DNA (mRNA) molecule to the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.
Colchicine is a substance that destroys spindle microtubules and stops mitosis at the metaphase stage.
Commensalism (freeloading) is one of the forms of symbiosis that is beneficial only for one organism.
Complementarity - strict correspondence of nitrogenous bases to each other (A-T; G-C)
The type of interaction of non-allelic genes, when the development of a trait is determined by two pairs of genes.
Consulting (medical-genetic) – counseling the applicant about the possible inheritance of a certain disease and how to prevent it using the method of genetic analysis.
Contamination is a method of infection using a vector, in which the pathogen enters the body through microtraumas on the skin and mucous membranes or orally with contaminated products.
Conjugation - conjugation in bacteria is a process in which microorganisms exchange plasmids, and therefore cells acquire new properties:
Conjugation in ciliates is a special type of sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid migrating nuclei;
Chromosome conjugation is the joining of homologous chromosomes into pairs (bivalents) in prophase I of meiosis.
Copulation is the process of fusion of germ cells (individuals) in protozoa.
Correlations are the interdependent, conjugate development of certain structures of the body:
Ontogenetic – consistency of development of individual organs and systems in individual development;
Phylogenetic (coordination) - stable interdependencies between organs or parts of the body, determined phylogenetically (combined development of teeth, intestinal length in carnivores and herbivores).
Crossing over is an exchange of sections of chromatids of homologous chromosomes, which occurs in prophase I of meiosis and leads to recombination of genetic material.
Cultivation of cells and tissues is a method that allows one to maintain the viability of structures when they are grown on artificial nutrient media outside the body to study the processes of proliferation, growth, and differentiation.
Leptotene is the initial stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are visible in the form of thin threads.
Lethal equivalent is a coefficient that allows you to quantify the genetic load of a population. In humans, the equivalent is 3-8 recessive homozygous conditions, leading to the death of the body before the reproductive period.
Ligases are enzymes that connect (“crosslink”) individual fragments of nucleic acid molecules into a single whole (connection of exons during splicing).
Macroevolution is evolutionary processes occurring in taxonomic units above the species level (order, class, phylum).
The marginotomy hypothesis is a hypothesis that explains the aging process by reducing the DNA molecule by 1% after each cell division (shorter DNA - shorter life).
Mesonerphosis (primary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney in which the structural and functional elements are the Bowman-Shumlyansky capsules that are beginning to form, associated with capillary glomeruli. It is located in the trunk region.
Meiosis is the division of oocytes (spermatocytes) during maturation (gametogenesis). The result of meiosis is recombination of genes and the formation of haploid cells.
Metagenesis is the alternation of sexual and asexual reproduction in the life cycle of organisms.
Metanephros (secondary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, the structural and functional element of which is the nephron, consisting of specialized sections. It is laid in the phase department.
Metaphase is the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which maximum spiralization of chromosomes located along the equator of the cell is achieved and the mitotic apparatus is formed.
Genetics methods:
Gemini is a method of studying twins by establishing intra-pair similarities (concordance) and differences (discordance) between them. Allows you to determine the relative role of heredity and the environment for the development of traits in descendants;
Genealogical - a method of compiling pedigrees; allows you to establish the type of inheritance and predict the probability of inheritance of traits in descendants;
Somatic cell hybridization is an experimental method that allows the fusion of somatic cells of different organisms in culture to obtain combined karyotypes;
Hybridological is a method that establishes the nature of inheritance of traits using a system of crossings. It consists in obtaining hybrids, analyzing them over a series of generations using quantitative data;
Modeling of hereditary diseases - the method is based on the law of homological series of hereditary variability. Allows the use of experimental data obtained on animals to study hereditary human diseases;
Ontogenetic (biochemical) method is based on the use of biochemical medicines to identify metabolic disorders caused by an abnormal gene in individual development;
Population-statistical method is based on the study of the genetic composition of populations (Hardy-Weinberg law). Allows you to analyze the number of individual genes and the ratio of genotypes in the population;
Cytogenetic is a method of microscopic study of the hereditary structures of a cell. Used for karyotyping and determination of sex chromatin.
Microevolution is elementary evolutionary processes occurring at the population level.
Mitotic (cellular) cycle is the time of cell existence during the period of preparation for mitosis (G 1, S, G 2) and mitosis itself. The G0 period is not included in the duration of the mitotic cycle.
Mimicry is a biological phenomenon expressed in the imitative similarity of unprotected organisms to unrelated protected or inedible species.
Mitosis is a universal method of division of somatic cells, in which the genetic material is evenly distributed between two daughter cells.
The mitotic apparatus is a division apparatus formed in metaphase and consisting of centrioles, microtubules and chromosomes.
Modification of mRNA is the final stage of processing that occurs after splicing. Modification of the 5' end occurs by attaching a cap structure represented by methylguanine, and a polyadenine tail is attached to the 3' end.
Sauropsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the forebrain, where clusters of nerve cells in the form of islands first appear - the ancient cortex (reptiles, birds);
Ichthyopsid - a type of vertebrate brain in which the leading role belongs to the midbrain (cyclostomes, fish, amphibians);
Mammal - a type of vertebrate brain in which the integrating function is performed by the cerebral cortex, which completely covers the forebrain - the new cortex (mammals, humans).
Genetic monitoring is an information system for recording the number of mutations in populations and comparing mutation rates over a number of generations.
Department of Education, Science and Youth Policy of the Voronezh Region
state budgetary professional educational institution
Voronezh region
"Voronezh State
industrial and technological college"
Toolkit
Compiled by:
O.Yu. Nesvetaeva
Voronezh - 2016
The textbook is intended for college students and teachers. The manual covers basic terms in biology. A brief dictionary of biological terms is necessary for successful mastery of natural science disciplines. The manual can be used to prepare To tests and exams, as well as handouts.
Published by decision of the methodological council of the State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "VSPTK", 2016
Explanatory note
Modern biology is a synthetic science, having absorbedincorporating a complex of related sciences - physics, chemistry, copperprice At the same time, biology is one of the oldest sciences,having deep historical roots and its own traditions.The language of science is formed both from established concepts andand from terms imported from other disciplines. Often aloneand the same concepts have different semantic meanings depending onuseful branches of knowledge.
Terms form the basis of the scientific vocabulary of any scienceki, reflect the thinking and concepts in this branch of knowledge."Term - a word or phrase that is a namewe eat a certain concept of some special fieldty of science, technology, art." (S. I. Ozhegov, 1961).
In the past, Latin was considered the scientific language, and that's allScientists around the world wrote their works in this language. Latinthe language adopted many terms from Greek. Therefore, most of the words in scientific terminology are associated with these classical languages. The vast majority are biological language is formed from parts of words (prefix, coren, suffix). Knowledge of individual elements of termsfacilitates memorization, makes it possible to groupcategorize them according to the common elements of words. This will help significantlyhelps in understanding the linguistic origin (etymology) andmakes it easier to memorize terms.
For example, if the terms have a prefixendo-,- this is oz begins that the concept refers to some internal structure round, what if exo..., then to the outside. Having learned several dozen parts of words of Latin and Greek origin,you can navigate the meaning of hundreds of biological ter min.
This guide makes it much easierpreparation for the test. The dictionary includes mainly termsmines of foreign origin and provisions omittedsome commonly understood designations, such as stamen, dog teak, herd, etc.
In parentheses after each term in the Russian transcripttions, parts of words and their translation from the language from whichterm formed. The following abbreviations are accepted: lat. -Latin, gr. - Greek, English - English, French - francZuzskiy, German - German.
A brief dictionary of biological terms
ABIOTIC FACTORS (a - negation, bios - life, gr.) - a set of inorganic factors whenlabor (temperature, humidity and etc.).
AVITAMINOSIS (a - negation, vita - life, lat.,amines - nitrogen-containing organic compounds) - onmetabolic disorder due to deficiency or absence vitamins
AUTO ... (autos - itself, gr.) - an integral part of complexwords denoting “himself”, “same”, “own”, “own”natural" or "automatic", "autonomous". For example,cell autoregulation, heart automation.
AUTOTOMY (auto and tome - section, gr.) - samokalechenie, the ability of some animals to discard partsof its body (for example, the tail when attacked by a predator - in lizards).
AUTOTROPHIC ORGANISMS (auto and trophy - food,gr.) - organisms capable of synthesizing organic substancesinorganic substances. “There are two groups:photo synthetics, containing chlorophyll and synthesizing organi logical
substances from carbon dioxide and water due to solar no energy, and chemosynthetics - synthesizing substances frommineral compounds due to the energy of certain chemicalsical reactions (a number of bacteria).
ADAPTATION (adaptation - device, lat.) -a set of general defensive reactions that arise in the bodylow animals and humans under the influence of irritants,helping to restore disturbed balance andaimed at maintaining the constancy of the internal environment body (homeostasis).
ADENIN - purine base, along withguanine part of DNA, RNA, ATP and some enzymes.Contained in all living cells.
ADF - adenosine diphosphoric acid.
ACCLIMATIZATION - (ak-k, pro, climate - tilt,lat., the ancient Greeks associated climatic differences withunequal inclination of the sun's rays to the earth's surfaceity) - adaptation of a species to new conditionspits of existence into which he found himself as a result of artits permanent overpopulation.
ALLELES (allelon - mutually, gr.) - modifiedor different states of one gene, leading to different variations of the same trait, arise due to mutations.
ALLELIC GENES lie in homologous chromosomes swing and occupy identicalloci.
AMINO ACIDS - organic compounds that combine the properties of acids andamines, i.e. containing carbock strong group (-COOH) and amino group N N 2 ). Have pain great importance in the life of organisms, i.e. they are fundamentalmi structural units of protein molecules.
Amitosis (a - negative particle, mitos - thread) -direct division of the nucleus by constriction without formationchro mosom, outside mitotic cycle. It is carried out without visible restructuring of the nucleus.
AMF - adenosine monophosphoric acid
AMFI... (amphi - around, around, on both sides) -part of compound words corresponding to the words “from both hundredron", "around", "double" (for example, amphibians livingin amphibious environments).
ANABIOSIS (ana - back, biosis - life, animatednie, gr.) - a state of the body in which vital processes (metabolism etc.) are so slow thatall visible manifestations of life are absent.
ANALYZER (analysis - decomposition, dismemberment,analysis, gr.) - a complex system of nervous formations in highof vertebrates and humans, carrying outperception, analysis of stimuli from external and internalbody environment.
ANALYSIS CROSSING - crossing an individual, genotype which needs to be determined, with a purely recessive form according to the studiedalleles. Such crossbreeding This makes it possible to determine in the first generation of hybridsgametes analyzed form.
AMPEL PLANT (ampel - hanging vase,German) - an ornamental plant with long hanging branchesrunning, grown in hanging vases(ampels) or hanging pots (for example, Tradescantia).
ANALOGY (analogy - similarity, correspondence, similarity)biye, gr.) - secondary, i.e. not inherited from common precursorswhat is the morphological similarity of organs in different organisms?systematic groups, due to the similarity of performancefunctions performed by these bodies. The term was introduced Aristotle (Similar organs).
ANATOMY (anatomy - dissection, dismemberment, gr.) - chapter morphology, studying the form and structure of individualorgans, organ systems and the body as a whole. Highlightana plant tomy, phytotomy, animal anatomy (zoo miyu), separating from it human anatomy. Studying similaritiesva and the differences the animal deals withcomparative anatomy animal mia.
ANAPHASE (ana - back, phase - manifestation, gr.) -one of the division phases -meiosis or mitosis Anaphase of meiosis stage 1 division of maturation(reduction division) primary spermatocytes And oocytes, as a result of which it is paired new homologous chromosomes, separating from each other, dispersingmove towards opposite poles.
ANAPHASE OF MITOSIS - third, next tometaphases Ouch stage of mitosis, during which the longitudinal halvesmetaphase chromosomes - chromatids quickly disconnect and diverge along the chromosome strandsachromatic faith tena towards its poles.
ANTHROPOGENESIS (anthropos - man, gr.) - originthe walk of man, his formation as a species in the processformation of society -sociogenesis. Anthropology - science about man.Anthropogenic factor - impact human activities on natural ecosystems.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM - endowment with human qualitiesqualities of animals, plants, objects and inanimate phenomenanature, likeness to man.
APPENDIX (appendix - appendage, lat.)(worm figurative process) - a process of the cecum of a mammalschi. Removed from a person whenappendicitis.
AREA (arealis - area, space, lat.) - aboutdistribution range of any category of animals orplants (species, genus, etc.).
AROMORPHOSIS, AROGENESIS (airo - I increase, genesis - origin, emergence, gr.) - one of the waysbiolo logical progress (according to A. N. Severtsev, 1931); adaptedtions that arise in some during the evolution of the stomachnyh, raising the taxon to a fundamentally new, moreprogressive stage of development (for example, the emergence flight).
ARTERIES (artery - windpipe, circulatoryvessel, lat.) - blood vessels that carry blood,enriched with oxygen from the heart to organs and tissues.
ASSIMILATION (assimilation - assimilation, lat.) - inbiology - one of the aspects of metabolism, the process of assimilationthe body's absorption of nutrients necessary for life inactivity.
ATAVISM (atavi - progenitor, lat.) - manifestationorganisms have properties and characteristics characteristic of distant ancestors
ATP - adenosine triphosphoric acid. Contained inevery cell of animals and plants.
AUTOSOMES (autos - self, soma - bodies, gr.) - allchromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants andmushrooms, exceptsex chromosomes. In diploid a set of human cells contains 22 pairs of autosomes and 1a pair of sex chromosomes.
AEROBES (eros - air, bios - life, gr.) - orgnizms, for the growth and reproduction of which it is necessary toof free oxygen.
BENTHOS (benthos - depth, gr.) - totality of organsnisms living at the bottom of reservoirs.
BIOGENIC ELEMENTS - chemical elements, according toconstantly included in the composition of organisms and necessary for their life (C, H, O - about 20 in total). In nature exist biochemical cycles or biogeochemical cru the talk of substances, having a cyclical nature.
BIOGEGRAPHY (bio and geography) - section of science,studying the patterns of distribution of organisms" on the globe. Divided intogeography of plants and zoos geography.
BIOGEOCENOSIS (bios - life, ge - earth, koinos - general, gr.) - a homogeneous surface area with a definedny composition of organisms (biocenosis) and their surroundingabiotic environment, characterized by relatively selfmetabolic rate and type of sweat useka solar energy, relatively long-term self-sustainingliving homogeneous natural environment. Biogeo Sciencecenoses is calledbiogeocenology.
BIOMASS (bios - life, gr., mass - lump, piece,lat-.) _ expressed in units of mass or energy of those orother organisms per unit area or volume.
BIONICS (bion - element of life, literally - I liveshchy, gr.) - one of the areas of biology and cybernetics,studying the structural features and vital functions of an organizationnisms in order to create more advanced technicalsystems or devices.
BIOSYNTHESIS (bios - life, synthesis - education, GR. ) _ the process of formation of substances necessary for the body,occurring in its cells with the participationbiocatalysts - enzymes. In the process of biosynthesis from starting substances,more complex compounds are formed - proteins, polysaccharides and
etc.
BIOSPHERE (bios - life, sphere - ball, shell, gr. ) - the Earth's shell, composition, structure and energywhich are determined by the total activity of living organisms nisms.
BIOTIC FACTORS (bio and factor - I dopowerful, producing, lat.) - a set of influences aloneorganisms to others.
BLASTOMERE (blast - sprout, meros - part, share, GR. ) _ general name for embryonic cells that arisedue to egg fragmentation by mitotic division andcharacterized by lack of growth.
BLASTULA (blast - sprout, gr.) - embryonic phaseth development of multicellular animals, which completesprimary division of the egg intoblastomeres.
VACUOLES (vacuole, French, from vacuum - empty) - cavities incytoplasm animal and plant cells, limitedmembrane-filled and liquid-filled.
VEGETATIVE ORGANS IN PLANTS (vegetati vus - plant, lat.) - parts of the body of higher plants,performing the basic functions of nutrition and metabolismwith the external environment (root, stem, leaf).
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - education buthowl of an individual from the unitpaStenius, one of the waysasexual th reproduction (part of the stem, root, leaf, bulbs,tubers, rhizomes, etc.).
BEH Y (vein - blood vessel, vein, lat.) - croveins that carry blood from organs and tissues to the heart tsu .
VIBRIO (vibrio - I hesitate, tremble, fr.; vibRio - one of the genera of bacteria, lat.) - gram-negative, comma-shaped, usually motile cells with polarflagellation.
HABIT (habitus - appearance, appearance) - externalny appearance of the organism, a set of characteristics, characterizesharing the general body type.
GAMETE (gamete - wife, gametes - husband, gr.) - polo voy cell, reproductive cell animals and plants, withhaploid set of chromosomes (when they merge, it forms double - diploid set of chromosomes).
GASTRULA (gaster - stomach, gr.) - many embryoscellular animals duringgastrulation (process separatelyformation of two primary germ layers, the outer one -ectoderm and internal - endoderm).
GEM (hemato, hemato, hemo, gr.) - part of the complexwords meaning “pertaining to blood.” For example,hemoglobin in the blood of animals.
GENE (genos - genus, origin, gr.) - structural anda functional elementary particle of hereditary information, which is a section of a DNA molecule (for RNA viruses), controlling the occurrence of anysign under certain conditions.Allelic genes - alleles
GENESIS (genesis - origin, emergence) -part of compound words denoting origin, processeducation (for exampleanthropogenesis).
GENETICS - the science of heredity and variabilitythese living organisms.
GENERATIVE ORGANS plants (gener - ryeI give, I produce, lat.) - perform the functions of sexual intercourse multiplication. Generative cell - a cell that produces sweat quality
HERMAPHRODITE (Hermaphroditus - son of Hermes and Aphrodite, mythical bisexual creature, gr.) - bisexualbeing, the presence of male and female organs in odof the same individual.
GENOTYPE (gene and typos - imprint, sample, type,gr.) - the totality of all genes inherent in a given individual.Gene pool - a set of genes that individuals havea given population, group of populations or species.Geno protection fund - one of the central tasks of nature conservation.
HETERA - (hetero, heteros - different, gr.) - compositepart of complex words denoting “other”, “dissimilar”.
HETEROSYGOTE (hetero and zygotos - connected together, gr.) - an organism (cell) in whichhomologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternative forms)we) of this or that gene.
HETEROSIS (heteronosis - change, transformation, gr.) (hybrid power) - superiority of hybridsa number of signs and properties over parent forms.
HETEROTROPHIC ORGANISMS (HETEROTROPHES) (hetero and trophe - food, gr.) - organisms that useThey consume ready-made organic compounds for their nutrition.
HYBRID
(hybris, hybridos - incest, gr.)
heterozygous organism that arises as a result of hybridizationcombining parent forms with differentgenotypes (by
hybridization).
.
HYGIENE (hygiene - healing (about health)) sectionpreventive medicine, studying the influence of externalenvironment on human health, performance, etc.A special section of hygiene issanitation.
HYDRO... (gidor - water, gr.) - part of compound words,indicating a relationship with water.Hydrobiology - the science about aquatic organisms.
HYDROSPHERE - the water shell of the Earth.Hydropo Nika - growing plants using aqueous solutions containing the necessary nutrients.Guide corophilic substances - substances whose energy attractsthe affinity for water is high and, therefore, the solubility of particularvery large, in contrasthydrophobic substance to you
HYDROPHILES - organisms that prefer moisture habitat.
HYDROPHOBES - avoiding places with high humidity ness (fileo - love, Phobos - fear, gr.).
GLYCOLYSIS (glykis - sweet, lys - dissolve,gr.) - enzymatic oxygen-free decomposition processcarbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid.
GOMEO... (homonos - similar, identical, gr.) -"similar"; "similar", "same".
HOMEOSTAS (homeo and stasis - immobility, statenie, gr.) - the ability of biological systems to resistchanges and maintain dynamic relative constantvariety of composition and properties.
HOMO... (homos - equal, identical, mutual, aboutshchiy, gr.) - part of compound words denoting equality,homogeneity unity.
HOMOLOGY , in biology - similarity in the structure of an organnew different species of animals and plants, due tothe fact that they come from the same rudiments(homologous nal organs). Homology - characteristics of the organism(or group of organisms) having in its chromosome seta couple or several pairshomologous sex chromosomes And As a result, they form gametes with the same set of chromosomes.Homozygote - diploid or polyploida cell (individual) whose homologous chromosomes carry identicaltypical alleles of a particular gene.
HORMONE(S) (hormonium, hormao - bring into motionmotion, encourage, gr.) - biologically active substances,produced by the endocrine glands, secreteinto the blood and affecting the activity of organs by activatingvisualization or inhibition of enzymatic processes.
GRADATION (gradatio - gradual increase, gradus - step, degree, gr.) - stepwise perfectionstudy of the organization of living beings in the process of phylogenesis inevolutionary theory of J. B. Lamarck.
GRANTS (granulum - grain, lat.) - located new in chloroplast cylindrical, superimposed on each otherother flat sacs formed by membranes, whereChlorophyll is diluted.
GUANINE - one of two purine bases, includedpresent on a par with adenine in the composition of nucleic acids.
DEGENERATION (degeneratio, degenero - I am degenerating,lat.) - 1. Simplification of the structure of organs and tissues in the processontogenesis of organisms(morphophysiological regression). 2. Reduction of individual organs and entire systems in the processphylogeny.
DENATURATION (de-prefix indicating removal,loss, nature - natural properties, lat.) - loss withnative configuration of molecules of proteins, nucleic acidslot and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemicalchemical processing, etc.(protein denaturation).
DEPRESSION (depressio, depressitis - to amaze, submitlie) - a painful state of melancholy, depression, hopelessnessanxiety, despair in some psychological diseases. In selectiondepression stand for negative consequences inbreeding.
DIVERGENCE (divergo - I deviate, I depart,lat.) - in evolutionary teaching - divergence of characteristicsorganisms during evolution.
DIPLOID (diploos - double, eidos - view, gr.) -an organism whose cells carry two homologous sets chromosomes (diploid set).
DISSIMILATION (dissimilis - dissimilar, lat.) -in biology, the destruction of organic compounds from transformationabsorption of organic substances (proteins, fats, etc.) in foodsolid substances (respiration, fermentation, glycolysis, etc.).
DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid. Contained incell nucleus, and also in small quantities in mitochondriaria and chloroplasts. Consists of two spirally twistedchains, one around the other.
DOMINANCE (domantis - dominant,lat.) - participation of only one allele in determining the prizenaka in a heterozygous individual(dominant trait).
ZYGOTE (zygotos - connected together, gr.) - cell,formed as a result of the fusion of gametes of different sexes,fertilized egg, initial stage of embryo development sha.
ZOO... (zoon - animals, gr.) - part of compound words,indicating a relationship with the animal world. For example,zoology, zoogeography.
IDIOADAPTATION (idios - special, peculiar and adaptation, gr.) (allomorphosis) - private fixtureorganisms to a certain way of life in specificenvironmental conditions. Corresponding evo directioncalled luciaallogenesis.
VARIABILITY - the property of living organisms existsexist in various forms (variants). Variability May be hereditary (genotypic), which is obus caught by the emergence of new genotypes and leads, asusually to a change in phenotype. The basis of this type of betrayalmutations or a combination of fusions may lie inzygote of pre-existing gametes carrying different genes(combinative variability).
NON-HERITABLE (MODIFICATION) from variability reflects a change in phenotype under the influence ofconditions of the existence of an organism that do not affect the genotype.
IMAGO (imago - image, likeness, lat.) - pubertybarking form in the development cycle of ticks, insects, and helminths.
IMMUNITY (immunitas - liberation, deliverancefrom something, lat.)(immunity, resistance, resistance durability) - the body’s ability to protect its own integrity and biological individuality (including immunity to infectious diseases). The science - immunology
INSTINCT (instinctus - urge, lat.) - evolutionally developed innate adaptive formbehavior characteristic of a given species of animal, beforewhich is a collection of inherited similarreactions to external and internal stimuli.
INSULIN - a protein hormone produced bygastric gland.
INTERPHASE (inter - between and phase, lat.) - time of functional activity between two cellular affairs niyami.
CAMBIUM (cambium - exchange, gr.) - educationalfabric located between reclaimed wood and second-handbast in dicotyledonous and gymnosperm plants andproducing an increase in thickness of their roots or stems.
CAPILLARIES (capillaris - hairy, lat.) - strandedthe smallest blood or lymphatic vessels.
GOLGI COMPLEX (Golgi apparatus, plates chat complex) - a cellular organelle consisting of cytoplasma membranes practically devoid of ribosomes.Performs a number of important functions: protein modification,forging secreted products into granules, synthesis of somepolysaccharides, cell membrane formation, formation tion lysosomes
COMPLEMENTARY (complimentum - additionallynie, lat.) - mutually complementary action of two dominantsgenes that influence the appearance of someor a new hereditary trait.
COMPLIMENTATION , in genetics - unification intozygote of two mutant alleles of one gene, leading torestoration of the originalphenotype.
CONVERGENCE (convergo - approaching, converging,lat.) - independent development of similar characteristics in differentgroups of organisms under similar environmental conditions.
CONJUGATION (conjugation - connection, lat.) - 1)at animals - sexual process, which consists of temporarythe connection of two individuals and the exchange of parts of the nuclear apparatusthat, as well as a small amountcytoplasm 2) in chromo catfish - pairwise temporary convergencehomologous chromosomes, in which the exchange of their homologous regions is possible -crossing over. Conjugation is also observed in algae,lower fungi and bacteria as a form of the sexual process.
CHRISTS (crista - outgrowth, ridge, lat.) - foldinner membranemitochondria.
CYCLE OF MATTER in nature - relatively repeating interrelated physical, chemical andbiological processes of transformation and movement of substances in nature.
BEYOND PLASTICS (leukos - white, plastos - fashionedflax, gr.) - colorless plastids of spherical or spindle-shaped form, found in most higher andsome lower plants. In young cells of leaves and stems they formchloroplasts.
LEUCOCYTES (leuko... and kitos - cell, gr.) - foressential elements of blood, colorless, functionally differentshaped, motile animal cells, white blood cells bodies.
LYSOSOME (lysis - dissolution, disintegration, decompositionnie, soma - body, gr.) - organelle of animal cells, osresponsible for intracellular digestion. Contains a set of enzymes involved in digestion processes.
LYMPH (lymph - pure water, moisture, lat.) - colorlessliquid in the body of vertebrates, formedfrom blood plasma through its filtration.
LIP..., LIPO... (lipos - fat, gr.) - a component of words meaning “fat”, “fatty”.Lipids- fat similar substances that are part of all living cells andinvolved in many vital processes, includingle - in the formation of energy reserves, thermal insulationcovers, etc. Sometimes designatedlipoids.
MACRA..., MACRO... (macro - long, large) -a component of complex words denoting “big”, “large”. For example,macronucleus - vegetative nucleusciliates, Controlling vegetative and syntheticprocesses in the cell.Macromolecule - molecule, molecularwhose mass is more than 1000 daltons. Possesses a colloidny properties.
MACROEVOLUTION (macro and evolution), - evolution,leading to the emergence of genera, families and other higherhigher systematic categories (above species).
MALPIGHIAN VESSELS (named after the scientist Malpigs) - narrow, long, blindly closed on one sidetubes, excretory organs of insects, arachnids andcentipedes. Located on the border of the middle and posterior intestines.
MESO..., MEZ... (mesos - average, intermediate,gr.) - part of complex words denoting the middle valuerank or intermediate position of something.
MESODERM (meso and dermis - skin, gr.) - averagegerm layer in multicellular animals (exceptsponges and coelenterates).
MEIOSIS (meiosis - reduction, gr.) - method of doingcell destruction, which results in reduction(decrease) in the number of chromosomes and the transition of cells from diploide state into haploid state. Main linkgametogen behind.
CELL MEMBRANE (membrane - skin,lat.) - biological membrane surrounding protoplasmliving cell, participates in the regulation of metabolism betweenthe cell and its environment.
META (meta - between, after, through, gr.) - part of the complexwords, denoting intermediateness, transition to somethingor another, change of state, transformation, for example,metabolism(metabolism).
METAPHASE (meta and phase - manifestation) - secondstage of cell division during which the nucleus envelopedissolves, and the chromosomes are located along the equator cells.
METAMORPHOSIS (metamorphosis - transformation, gr.) -yanimals deep transformation of the body into prothe process of which the larva turns into an adult.Characteristic of most invertebrate animals, minogam, lungfish, amphibians.
METHODS FOR STUDYING HUMAN HERITAGE CENTURIES , there are 4 methods:
1Genealogical - study of the pedigree of people over as many generations as possible; 2.Twin - studied detection of signs in twins. Studyingidentical twins tsov, if they live in different conditions, let us judgeabout the role of the environment in their development; 3.Cytogenetic - studying chromosomal complex, chromosomal mutations, better formarked at the stage of metaphase of mitosis;
4 Biochemical - study of metabolism.
MENTOR METHOD - one of the selection techniques“education”, developed by I.V. Michurin. Signsof the developing hybrid change under the influence of the scion androotstock (rootstock and scion are replaced depending on desiredour results).
MICRO... (micros - small, small, gr.) - partcomplex words indicating small size or small-the size of something.Microbiology - the science of microorga nisms (bacteria), sometimes blue green is also included herealgae, microscopic algae and fungi, archaeabacteria, protozoa. Termbacteriology use more often lies in medicine.Micronucleus, - small (generative) core v ciliates.
MICROELEMENTS - chemical elements that havein organisms in low concentrations (1: 4.00 000 and below).
MICROEVOLUTION - a set of evolutionaryprocesses within a species, within individual or adjacent populations.
MIMICRY (mimicos - imitative, gr.) - imitative similarity of an unprotected organism with a protected oneedible or inedible. One of the typespatronizing new coloring and shapes.
MIO... (myos - muscle, gr.) - part of compound words,indicating a relationship to muscles. For example,myocardium (card - heart, gr.) - cardiac muscle.Myofibrils (fiber - fiber, lat.) - contractile fibers insarco plasma striated muscle fibers, cardiacmuscles and muscles with double oblique striations, providestrong muscle contractions.
MITOSIS (mitosis - vit, gr.)(mitosis) - indirect division, characterized by complex processes, occurswalking in the core as a whole. Provides gene formationidentical cells and maintains continuity in a number of cell generations. Occurs in separate stages yam: interphase (intekinesis), and then prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
MITOCHONDRIA (mito and chondrocosis - grain, gr.) -cell organelles that are capable ofreplication and appear are the energy system and the center of cellular respiration nia.
MODIFICATIONS (modification, mode - measure, type,facio - do) - non-hereditary (phenotypic) fromvariability caused by the influence of the external environment on the somatic cells and does not affect the chromosomal apparatusgametes. They are adaptive to the environment and reversible ter.
MONO... (moios - one, only, united, gr.) -part of compound words meaning “one”, “one”.Mono hybrid - a hybrid heterozygous for one lara allele.Monohybrid cross - one of the rules (laws) Mendel. Monosaccharides - simple sugars, one of the basesny groups of carbohydrates.
MUTATIONS (mutatio - change, lat.) - sudden, natural or artificially caused inherited fromchanges in genetic material leading to changescertain signs of the body. There are mutations:genetic - invasive, with qualitative changes from useful genes chromosomal, related to transformationchromosomes (this includespolyploidy), somatic, in which changes occur in somatic cells.Most mutations are recessive, occurring in genes localized in the chromosomes of germ cells. Therefore maybe arise recessive mutation.
HEREDITY - property of living matterimpart to the offspring the properties of the parents, which ensurescontinuity of morphological, physiological, biochemicalmic organization of organisms in a series of generations and obuscaptures the specific nature of ontogenesis in a definednew environmental conditions. Genetic factors may be involvednot only in the nucleus, but also in the cytoplasm. Therefore there is concept - cytoplasmic variability.
NEURON (neuron - vein, nerve, gr.) - nerve cellka (neutrocyte), main structural and functionalunit of the nervous system with specific propertiesphenomenon of excitability. Some of the compound words -neuro... uka refers to the relationship to the nervous system.
NOOSPHERE (noos - mind, sfeira - ball, gr.) -a new ratio of the biosphere, in which intelligent actionhuman activity becomes the main, determining factorthe torus of its development(sphere of the mind).
REACTION NORM - in genetics - the limits of modificationtional variability of the trait. Change in genotype whenenvironmental influence is calledmodification changeable stu.
NUCLEO... (nucleus - core, lat.) - part of complexwords related to “core”, “nuclear”.Nucleic acidic You - phosphorus-containing biopolymers having a universalsebaceous distribution in the animal environment (DNA, RNA),found in the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and cytoplasms plasma.
"DOUBLE HElix" DNA - polymer, consists of monomers - nucleotides (adenine, guanine, thymine, cyto zina). The linkage of nucleotides into a chain occurs through phosphorus.foric acid anddisoxyribose. Among the RNAs there are Various types: transfer RNA (tRNA), who is trans transports amino acids to the site of protein synthesis,information tion RNA (i-RNA) - carries information about the structureture of the protein that must be synthesized,ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)- contained in ribosomes.
METABOLISM (metabolism) - natural according toseries of transformations of substances and energy in living systems,underlying life. Set of reactionsbiosynthesis (synthesis of substances in the cell) is calledplastic exchange, orassimilation. The set of splitting reactions intothey callenergy metabolism cells, ordissimilation.
OVULATION (ovum - egg, lat.) - release of the egginto the body cavity. One of the formssexual (or menstrual) cycle in animals.
ONTOGENESIS (he, ontos - being, genesis - aboutorigin, birth of gr.)(ontogeny) - individual;the development of an individual, the entire set of its transformations from behindbirth until the end of life.
ORGANOID (organon - organ, instrument, instrument,eidos - species, gr.) - cellular structures, cellular organsus, ensuring the performance of specific functions c.process of cell life. Specific structurestours of unicellular animals that perform a specificfunction is calledorganelles. Often organoid and organellela in modern literature are used as synonyms. TO.the same part of the word includes the termsorganism, organ
NATURAL SELECTION - the process of survivalmore adapted individuals, which leads to a predominant increase or decrease in the number of some individualsbeat in populations compared to others. Home movingpowerevolution. In progressartificial selection human selection of plant varieties or animal breeds occurs. The main methods of plant breeding arehybridization Andselection. Selection may bemass, at coa torus identifies a group of individuals with the desired characteristics, and~individual, in which individuals are selectedwith the necessary properties. The offspring of one self-pollinateof the individual is calledclean line. Driving selection - is called the selection of certain deviations from the steady statenorms of signs leading to its change through the development of newsigns. Selection in favor of the established norm of a trait -when all noticeable deviations from it are eliminated, it is calledstabilizing.
PALEO... (palaios - ancient, gr.) - part of complexwords indicating a connection with antiquity.
PALEONTOLOGY - science of ancient organismsaspects of their life and burial.
PARTHENOGONESIS (parthenos - virgin, genesis -origin, birth, gr.) - virgin reproduction,one of the forms of sexual reproduction in which femalesgerm cells develop without fertilization.
PEPTIDE BOND - type of amide bond (HN-SO),which arises betweenamino acids in proteins. This is soyit's calledpeptide.
PINOCYTOSIS (pino - drink, absorb, cytos - cellka, gr.) - active absorption by the cell from the surroundingliquid environment, resulting in the cytoplasm of the cellBubbles containing liquid form.
PLASMA (plasma - sculpted, shaped, gr.) -in biology - the liquid or gel-like part of biologicalstructures - blood, lymph, cells(cytoplasm) and others Jewwhat part of the blood -blood plasma.
PLASTIDES (created, gr.) - plant organellesno cells. They are distinguished by colorchloroplasts (green), chromoplasts (red), leucoplasts (colorless)
PLEURA (pleura - rib, side, side, gr.) - serosismembrane that lines part of the general body cavity onterrestrial vertebrates, with which the lungs and feathers are enclosedwalking on the lungs. Pleura also refers to the lateralpart of the chest of a number of invertebrate animals.
PLACENTA (plaktus - flat cake, gr.) - a child's place, an organ through which during intrauterine development the waspcommunication and metabolism takes place between organismsloss and child.
POLY... (shelf - numerous, extensive, gr.) -part of compound words indicating multitude, varietynal composition of something. For example,polyhybrid crossing tion.
POLYPLODY (poly - a lot, ploos - fold,eidos - appearance,gr.)- the presence in cells of an increased numberchromosomes multiple of haploid (triploid - 3 timesny,tetraploid - 4 times).
POLYRIBOSOMES (POLYSOMES) - ribo complexcatfish connected by an information moleculeRNA involved inprotein biosynthesis.
POLYSACCHARIDES - high molecular weight carbohydrates,whose molecules are built from monosaccharide residues,linked by glycosidic bonds and forming linear or branched chains. For example,cellulose.
PRODUCERS (producer - producing, creatingshchi) - autotrophic organisms that create with the helpphotosynthesis or chemosynthesis organic matter fromorganic.
PROTO... (protos is the first,gr.)- some compound words,indicating primacy, first principle or predecessorthe next stage in the development of something. For example,protozoa - prosthe coolest animals.
PROTOPLASM (proto and plasma - sculpted, sformated, gr.) - the contents of a living cell - its cytoplasma and core.
PSEUDO... (pseidos - lie, gr.) - part of complexwords denoting false, imaginary, apparent, sometimes counterfeit. For example,pseudopodia - pseudopods (extensionsare temporarily present in the amoeba).
POPULATION (populus - population, lat.) - anya collection of individuals capable of self-reproductionspecies, more or less isolated in space and timeme from other similar aggregates of the same type.
POSTEMBRYONAL DEVELOPMENT - (post - after, later, lat., embryo - embryo, gr.) - period of developmentthe death of animal organisms after emerging from their shells orbirth to puberty.
PROGRESS (progress - forward movement, lat.) - inliving nature, improvement and complication of organizationsmov in the process of evolution. Stands outbiological pro gress - the result of the success of a given group in the struggle for existence (increase in numbers, expansion of range, racefalling into subordinate systematic categories} Andmorphophysiological progress - evolution of organisms according toways to complicate and improve their organization.
PULSE (pulus - blow, push, lat.) - periodicsome jerk-like expansion of arterial walls, synchronouswith heart contractions.
RACE (race - genus, breed, French) - in biology - grouporganisms isolated ecologically or geographicallyin a technical sense. Individuals of a race have similar characteristics(morphological, physiological or environmental), relatedare covered by a distribution area that forms part of the rangespecies or subspecies. Humanity forms three large races:equatorial (Negroid or Negroid-Australoidnaya - black), Eurasian (Europoid - white) andAsian-American (Mongoloid - yellow).
IRRITABILITY - ability of living cells, tissueit or the whole organism to react to external or internalearly influences(irritants).
RE... (lat.) - a prefix denoting (“repeated, inrenewable, reproducible action", "anti-actionpositive (reverse) to what is expressed by the main partwords" "reaction". For example,recombination (re... andcombinatio - connection, lat.) - in genetics - redistributiontransfer of genetic material from parents to offspring, whichswarm leads to hereditary combinative variabilityliving organisms.
REGENERATION (regeneratio - rebirth, lat.) -restoration by the body of a lost part of the body.
REGRESSION (regression - return, movement back,lat.) - in biology - simplification of organisms in the process
evolution.
REDUCTION (reductio - retraction, returnnie, restoration) - in biology - simplification of the structure,reduction in size or complete loss of tissue or cells in.during phylogenesis. Reduction division - widely usedis the name of one of the two divisions of meiosis, during whichrum there is a divergence of homologous chromosomes.
DNA REDUPLICATION (reduplicatio - movement,dat.) - doubling of DNA molecules by completing templateslongitudinal halves" of the DNA molecule due to insufficienting complementary free nucleotides. PossibleRNA reduplication, chromosome reduplication (double chromosom).
REDUCENTS (reducere, reducetis - returning,restorative, lat.) - organisms, mainly"bacteria and fungi, which in the course of their life activity transformorganic residues into inorganic substances.
RESISTANCE (resisteo - I resist,lat.) - resistance of the body, immunity to someor agents (for example, to poisons).
RECAPITULATION (recapitulation - repetition of skadone or done, lat.) - repetition in the course of an individualdual development of the organism(ontogenesis) characteristicsigns of adult stages of distant ancestors
RECOMBINATION (re and combination - connection,lat.) - in genetics - redistribution of genetic materialrial of parents in offspring, which leads to inheritanceveincombinative variability living organisms.
RELIC (relictum - remnant, lat.) - species (or otherother taxa) of plants or animals preserved fromvanished floras widespread in the past andfaun. Sometimes relics are understood as those preserved frompast biocenoses or ecosystems. There are tertiary(sequoia), glacial (dwarf birch) and other typesrelics.
REFLEX (reflexum - turning back, reflection,lat.) - the body's response to changes in externalor internal environment, occurring through the nervous systemin response to receptor stimulation. Distinguishunconditional reflexes (innate, evolutionarily developed andfixed hereditarily) andconditioned reflexes (purchaseshadowy in individual life).
RECENT (recentor - recently, just, lat.) - a term used to designate modern floras andfauna, as opposed to extinct(fossil organizations We, i.e. fossils).
RECEPTOR (receiver - receive, receptor - takebellowing, lat.) - special formations in animalspeople who perceive and transform stimulifrom the external and internal environment into the specific activity of the nervous system. Highlightmechanoreceptors (egmeasures, in the hearing organs),chemoreceptors (taste, smell),photoreceptors (vision),thermoreceptors (skin), etc.
RECESSIVITY (recession - retreat, removal"lat) is one of the forms of phenotypic manifestation of the gene.G. Mendel when crossing individuals that differ in op.certain trait, found that in hybrids of the firstgeneration one of the parental characteristics disappears(recession strong), and the other appears(dominant).
RIBOSOME (ribes - flow and soma - body, lat.) -cell organelles in the form of spherical granules, attachedto intracellular biological membranes or their ownlying loosely in the cytoplasm, they consist of RNA and proteins, especiallyperform protein biosynthesis.
RIZO... (riza - root, gr.) - part of complex words associated with the root.Rhizosphere - part of the soil, adjacentgoing to the root.
RHIZOIDS - filamentous formations in mosses, overgrowthferns, lichens, some algae and fungi that perform the function of roots.
RNA - ribonucleic acid, high molecular weightorganic compound formednucleotides, in kotosome nitrogenous bases are included(adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil) and carbohydrate componentribose (in DNA instead of cheersTsila entersTimin, and instead of ribose -deoxyribose). RNAparticipates in the implementation of genetic information. DifferencesThere are three main types of RNA -matrix (information nal), transport and ribosomal.
RUDIMENTS (rudimentum - rudiment, fundamental principle,lat.)(vestigial organs) - simplified, underdevelopedcompared with homologous structures of ancestral andsimilar forms that have lost their basic meaning in the organizationme phylogeny, structure. For example, a person has a tailhigh vertebrae, appendix, ear muscles, etc.
SAPRO... (sapros - rotten, gr.) - part of compound words,meaning "rotten".
SAPROPHAGE - animals that feed on decayingremains of other animals.Saprophyte - bacteria, fungi andplants that feed on dead organic matterorganisms and animal secretions.Saprobity - displaydegree of water pollution (assessed by the organizermothers living in contaminated water -saprobionts, orsaprobes).
MATRIX SYNTHESIS - type of reaction in whichnew protein molecules are synthesized in exact accordance with the plan laid down in the structure of existing moleculesDNA. These reactions provide precise specificitywhat is the sequence of monomers in the synthesized polymeasures.
SYMBIOSIS (symbiosis - cohabitation,gr.)- typerelationships between organisms of different systematic groups:coexistence, mutually beneficial (often obligationscohabitation of individuals of two or more species (for examplemer, hermit crab and sea anemone).
SOMA (soma - body, gr.) 1. Torso, body; 2. Aggregatethe activity of all cells of the body, with the exception of reproductiveny cells.Somatic - associated with the body (as opposed tofrom the psyche).
SPERM - seed (gr.).
SPERMAGENESIS - formation of male reproductive cells (spermatozoa).
WALL... (stenos - narrow, limited, gr.) - partcompound words denoting narrow intervals of something, limitation. For example,stenotherm - organism, inhabitoperating in narrow temperature ranges,stenophage - organism,feeding on a similar (low variety) feed composition.
STERILIZATION (sterilis - sterile, lat.)
Killing Microorganisms with High Themestemperatures, filtration or treatment with poisonous gases, chichemical substances or ionizing radiation;
Depriving organisms of the ability to reproduce.
STRESS (stress - tension, English) - non-specificthe body's tension reaction to any strong stressaction. The most severe form isshock.
SUCCESSION (succession - continuity, inheritancevanie, lat.) - sequential change of ecosystems, successionoccurring venomously in a specific place (for example, onbacteria and algae appear in the stones, then lichensand mosses and some animals, when the soil formedhigher plants, etc.).
TAXIS (taxi - location, structure, gr.) - directionslow movement of organisms or their organelles under the influencereduction of a unilaterally acting stimulus(phototaxis, ter motaxis, chemotaxis, etc.).
TAXON - a group of objects related by common properties and characteristics (species, genus, order, etc.)d.).
TELOPHASE (telos - end and phase, gr.) - concludetelial phase of cell division and its nucleus.
THERIOLOGY (therion - beast and logos - teaching,gr.)- branch of zoology that studies mammals.
THERMO... (thermo - heat, gr.) - part of compound words,related to heat.
THERMOPHILE - organisms that prefer high temperatures.
TOX... (tokson - poison, gr.) - part of compound words, convoystarting with “poisonous”, “toxic”.
TOXICOSIS - state of the body due to longbody poisoning or toxemia (presence of toxins in the blood).
TRANSCRIPTION (transcriptio - rewriting,lat.) - the first stage of the implementation of genetic informationin the cell, as a result of which RNA biosynthesis occurscorresponding sections of the DNA matrix. Atreverse transcriptions biosynthesis of DNA into RNA occurs.
BROADCAST (translation - transfer, translation,lat.) - in genetics - translation of genetic information intothe structure of specific proteins as a result of the interaction of DNA molecules and messenger RNA with the participation of transfer RNA and ribosomes.
TRANSPIRATION (trans - through and spiro - I breathe, inhale, lat.) - evaporation of water by plants, mainlyleaves.
TROPE... (tropos - turn, direction) - part of a complexwords denoting “direction of action”, “capable ofself or mode of action."
TROPISM - direction of growth or movement of the abdomennogo, plant or individual cell relative to the stimulusresident (light, chemical, etc.).
TROF... (tropho - nutrition, food, gr.) - part of complexwords related to nutrition, growth, feeding.Tro physical connections - forms of communication between populations in biocenosis, manifested in the nutrition of individuals of the same species forcounting living individuals of another species, their waste products, or their dead remains.
TROPHIC CHAINS (FOOD CHAINS) - mutuallyrelationships between organisms during the transfer of food energyfrom its source - a green plant through a number of organisms, occurring by eating some organisms of othersgimi from higher trophic levels.
TROPHIC NETWORK - interweaving of food purposes in a complex natural community.
TURGOR (turgere - to be swollen, filled,lat.) - the elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the cell contents on their elasticwalls.
FAGO... (phagos - devouring, gr.) - part of complexwords denoting: 1) “relating to eating”, 2) “relating toattacking the bacteriophage."
PHAGOCYTE (phago and kitos - vessel, cell) - cellmulticellular animals, capable of capturing and transferringboil foreign bodies, in particular microbes.Fago cytosis - active capture and absorption of living cells and notliving particles by single-celled organisms or specialcells - phagocytes. One of the organ's defensive reactionsnisms, mainly during inflammatory processes.The phenomenon of phagocytosis was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov (1883G.)
FAUNA (according to Greek mythology Fauna is mythicalwife of Faun - the god of forests, fields, patron of herds) - an evolutionarily formed set of all species of animals,living in this space.
PHENOTYPE (hairdryer and topos - image, imprint) - owlthe totality of all properties and characteristics of an individual at a certainparts of the development stage formed as a result of mutualinteraction of the genotype with the environment.
ENZYME (fermentum - leaven)(enzyme) - biological catalyst by chemical nature - protein, bothnecessarily present in all cells of a living organismma. Accelerates the transformation of substances (biochemical reactions).
PHYSIOLOGY (nature, natural properties and logos - doctrine) - medical and biological science of lifethe whole organism, individual systems, organs, tissues,cells and regulation of physiological reactions.
PHYLOGENESIS (faino - I manifest and typos - imprint,gr.) - the historical development of the world of living organisms. Thisscience studies the processphylogenetics.
PHYTO... (phyton - plant, gr.) - part of compound words,meaning "pertaining to plants" or "to the science of plants."
PHYTOPLANKTON - a set of plants , I livein the water column, together withzooplankton (collectionanimals of the water column).
FLORA (in Roman mythology Flora is the goddess of flowersand spring) - a historically established set of speciesplants that live or lived in the past.
PHOTO... (photo - light, gr.) - an integral part of the complexwords, indicating the attitude to light, to influenceI see the light.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - transformation of the radiant energy of the Sun into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances by green plants and photosynthetic microorganisms.Occurs with the participation of light absorberspigments, formerlyof all thingschlorophyll. Photoperiodism (photo and periodos -bypass, rotation, gr.) - the body’s reaction to a changeday and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of phiphysiological processes.Photolysis - decomposition processsubstances under the influence of light.
HEMO... ((al)chemistry - the art of fusing metals) - a component of compound words indicating relativeknowledge of chemistry, chemical elements and compounds.
CHEMORECEPTOR - sensory nerve endingstions that perceive chemical irritations.Khemosin thesis - the process of formation by some microorganisms,organic substances from carbon dioxide due to the energy obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds (withoutparticipation of solar energy).
CHLOROPLAST (chloros - green and plastos - fashionedcreated) - organelles of a plant cell,intracellularraceslaid down plastids, in which thePhotosynthesis occurs. They have a green color, due todetermined by the presence in them of the main pigment of photosynthesis -chlorophyll.
CHROMIUM... (chroma, chromatos - color, skin color, colorka) - a component of compound words, meaning “relativelyshining towards color."
CHROMATIDS (chrome and eidos - similar) - longitudinalnew halves of chromosomes (one of two nucleotide strands),consisting ofchromonema. The chromonemas havechromofib rills, containing DNA.
CHROMATIN - nucleoprotein cell nucleus, compositionlaying the basis of chromosomes. Stains well with histological processing.
CHROMOPLAST - plastid with weakly expressed internalearly structure, formed as a derivative of chloroplasttov, less often leukoplasts. Contains predominantly irondark pigments - carotenoids (for example, during ripeningrose hips, peppers, tomatoes, flower petals). Intenselysynthesized during the destruction of chloroplasts.
CHROMOSOME (chroma and soma - body, gr.) - self-containedproduced structural element of the cell nucleus, containingpressing DNA, which contains the genetic (hereditary)ven) information.
CENTER... (centrum - center of a circle, lat.) - compositepart of the words indicating: the relationship to the center, “locatedmarried in the center."
CENTRIOLES - cylindrical chromosomal bodies forming the cell center, diverging towards the fieldthe cell itself and those reproducing during its division, definingdetermine the orientation of the spindle. Contain DNA and are capable ofself-reproduction.
CENTROMERES (centro and meros - part, gr.) -uchaschromosome current holding two strands together - chromatityyes. During cell division, centromeres direct the movement of chromosomes towards the poles of the cell.
POWER CIRCUIT (see trophic chains).
CYTO... (citus - vessel, mitos - emptiness, gr.) - sosthe main part of compound words, meaning “relating to”cell", "cellular".
CYTOPLASM (cyto and plasma are something formed,fashioned) - the extranuclear part of the protoplasm of living cellsvyh organisms.Cytology - cell science that studiesstructure, development and functions of animal and plant cellscurrent.
CLEAN LINES - a group of individuals obtained in reas a result of long-term inbreeding with the most homogeneoussequence.
EVOLUTION (evolution - deployment, lat.) - inbiology complex, theoretical provisions about mechanisms,driving factors and patterns of development of living thingschildbirth, irreversible and directed development of Living Nature.
EURO... (euros - wide, gr.) - part of compound words meaning “wide”, “vast”, “many-sided”,"various".Eurybiont - an organism that lives at one timepersonal, dramatically different environmental conditions. DependingThese factors are distinguishedeurytherm (temperature),euryphage (food),eurygades (salinity of the environment), etc.
ECOLOGY (oikos - house, dwelling, homeland and logos -teaching,gr.)- the science of relationships between organisms and their environmentliving environment. In recent years, the boundaries of ecology have become significantexpanded significantly and in additionbioecology include questionsnature conservation, environmental management, toxicology, geochemistry, hydrochemistry and other sciences.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE - the place occupied by the buttlation of the species in the biocenosis.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID (Elton's pyramid) - graphical models (usually in the form of triangles) reflecting the number of individuals(pyramid of numbers), amount of their biomass(biomass pyramid) or the energy contained in themGuy(pyramid of energies) at each trophic (nutritional) level and indicating a natural decrease in allindicators with an increase in the trophic level (productionyou, consumers of the 1st order, consumers of the 2nd order, etc.d.).Developed by C. Elton (1927).
ECTO... (ectos - outside, outside, gr.) - first componentpart of complex words corresponding in meaning to words"external", "external".
ECTODERM (ecto and dermis - skin, gr.) - 1. Outergerm layer of a multicellular embryonykh. From it the integuments of animals develop, the outer skinyears of invertebrates, etc. 2. Outer layer of two-layeranimals - sponges, coelenterates.
EMBRYOLOGY (embryo - germ and logos - teachingnie, gr.) - a scientific discipline that studies the embryonic(embryonic) development of the organism.
EMOTION (emotion, French, from Lat, emovere - to excite,worry) - subjective reaction: mental experiencetion, emotional disturbance (anger, fear, timidity, etc.), the emergencein humans or animals due to exposure tothem external and internal stimuli.
END... (endo..., endo - inside, gr.) - componentcompound words meaning “inside”, “internal”.Endo dermis (endo and dermis - skin) - 1) internal embryofirst leaf of the embryo of multicellular animals(in gastrula); 2) the inner layer of the wall of two-layer animals is the intestinenocavities and sponges.
ENDOSPERM (endon - inside and sperm - seed) - forgrazing triploid tissue of plant seeds, in which fromnutrients necessary for times are suppliedembryonic development (well developed in cereals, umbellifers, pasleynew and other plants).
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - network of channels, laborbarrels, vesicles located inside the cytoplasm.
ENDEMIC (endemos - local, gr.) - local species(and another systematic category - genus, family andetc.), living only in this area.
EPI... (epi - on, above, with, after, gr.) - part of the complexwords, defining being on top of something, in front of or near something (epigraph), following something, massowl distribution(epidemic - epi and demos - people,gr.).
EPIDERMIS (epi and dermis - skin, gr.) - surfacethick layer of skin of vertebrates, including humans,or outer integumentary tissue of higherpacshadows.
erythrocytes (erythros - red and citus - cell,gr.) - red blood cells of vertebrates and someinvertebrate animals.
EPHEMEROID (ephemeros - one-day and eidos - species, gr.) - a perennial plant characterized by intermittentresidential flowering period and. annual growing season. Naimore typical for arid areas (steppes, emptyneither).
EUKARYOTES (eu - good, karyon - core and tere -shell, gr.) - unicellular and multicellular growbody and animal organisms, whose cells, unlikefrom prokaryotic cells differentiated into cytoplasm andlimitedkaryolemma core. Contrastedabout karyotes.
Toolkit
BRIEF DICTIONARY OF BIOLOGICAL TERMS
for college students and teachers
Compiled by:
teacher of biology and ecology
O.Yu.Nesvetaeva
Voronezh State Industrial and Technological College
For notes
