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The situation of the main segments of the population in the second half of the 19th century, outline of a history lesson (8th grade) on the topic. The position of various strata of society at the end of the 19th century How the position of the main strata of Russian society has changed

Question 1. What new groups have appeared in Russian society? What are the reasons for their appearance?

Answer. The bourgeoisie and the proletariat emerged. This happened thanks to the development of industry. Industry largely belonged to the public sector, but there was also a lot of it in the private sector. Private owners of industrial enterprises constituted the bourgeoisie. In the second half of the 19th century, the technological process was such that in many areas of production, factories had to be large, otherwise they would cease to be profitable. Both large and small industrial enterprises employed hired workers. They made up the proletariat.

Question 2. What new phenomena occurred among the peasantry?

Answer. After the abolition of serfdom and temporary obligation, the peasants needed money much more than before. The money was used to pay taxes and redemption payments to the state. Therefore, peasants were forced to focus more on the market. But not all peasants were equally successful in earning money. Property stratification in the village began at an accelerated pace. A mass of landless peasants appeared who were hired to work for more successful neighbors. Peon labor also became a new phenomenon. Urbanization was also new. Some of the landless peasants went to the city and joined the ranks of the proletarians, although even the poor were tied to their native places and did not strive to become city dwellers.

Question 3. How did the position of the nobility change?

Answer. The nobility was also stratified based on wealth. Some of its representatives, who could not only boast of nobility (that is, possessed not only the title of nobility, but also a certain title), but also retained their wealth, continued to rule the country, occupy key positions, and constitute the highest society of both the capital and provincial cities. But many nobles went bankrupt and lost their estates. Some such nobles joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Others tried to live off government salaries, such as military service. At the same time, the nobles lost their monopoly on officer ranks. And some tried to live in the old way, borrowing and reborrowing money. These are clearly shown in “The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov as a symbol of a passing era.

Question 4. What segments of the population were the bourgeoisie made up of? How did the appearance of the Russian merchant class change?

Answer. The bourgeoisie was formed from almost all classes. Some nobles used the money received under the peasant reform or increased the profitability of their estates and opened production there. The merchants had capital in the form of money, not land, which is why they were especially active in recruiting the ranks of the bourgeoisie. In their small workshops, some petty bourgeois managed to accumulate initial capital; they also became bourgeois. There are also known stories of some peasants who, usually over the course of several generations, transformed from strong rural owners into owners of huge industrial empires. The glory of Russian entrepreneurship was also achieved by representatives of the peoples of the outskirts of Russia, especially those outskirts on whose territory mineral resources such as oil were abundant. Industrialists felt themselves masters of life, in which money increasingly began to rule. However, they not only enjoyed life themselves. They became the largest philanthropists of their country. This was especially true for people from the merchant class. Their families sometimes held huge amounts of money in their hands for many generations and did not experience shock or euphoria from this. These include A.A. Korzinkin, K.T. Soldatenkov, P.K. Botkin and D.P. Botkin, S.M. Tretyakov and P.M. Tretyakov, S.I. Mamontov, as well as many others.

Question 5. What were the characteristics of the Russian proletariat?

Answer. Peculiarities:

1) the Russian proletariat maintained a close connection with the countryside, proletarians were usually first-generation city dwellers, more than half of them continued to combine work in their enterprise and agricultural labor;

2) the proletariat consisted of representatives of many nationalities;

3) the concentration of the proletariat in large enterprises in Russia was even greater than in other countries;

4) workers usually sent money to families who remained in the villages, so they saved on everything and because of this, their living conditions were especially difficult.

Question 6. What changed in the second half of the 19th century. in the position of the clergy?

Answer. The monks and nuns basically continued to live as they had lived. Their charters were once specifically created to maintain the inviolability of their existence. And the white clergy were in for serious changes. The main one happened in 1867 - parishes ceased to be inherited. This means that people from other classes could join the white clergy, and people from the clergy could choose a secular career. Attempts were also made to improve the financial situation of priests and their cultural level. For this purpose, parish trustees were created from parishioners, including parishioners of the rich and influential. Also, many smaller parishes were merged together or with larger parishes. Thanks to this, the incomes of the priests who retained their chairs increased.

Question 7. How did the formation of the intelligentsia proceed?

Answer. The intelligentsia are all people who earn money from mental labor and live off it. With the development of industry, the number of such people has increased sharply. Production required a large number of engineers and technical specialists, who made up the intelligentsia in the same way as doctors, lawyers, teachers, scientists... Traditionally, people from the commoners joined the intelligentsia. But in the second half of the 19th century, its ranks were actively replenished by impoverished nobles.

Question 8. What features of the Cossacks allow us to call it a “special” class?

Answer. Peculiarities:

1) in the language, including the language of official documents, there was a special term “Cossacks”;

2) the Cossacks had self-awareness, they understood that they constituted a special group;

3) the Cossacks were the only class in Russia whose representatives were both warriors and farmers;

4) in the Cossack regions there was a special nature of land ownership;

5) there was a special control system for the Cossack troops;

6) the Cossacks had their own education system, special schools;

7) the Cossacks developed their production, and they developed it largely together and clearly separating them from the production of the bourgeoisie.

Slide 1

The situation of the main sections of society
Chikatuev Malik 8 “B”

Slide 2

Estates and classes in post-reform society
In the second half of the 19th century. The class division of society still remained. In the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire, the entire urban and rural population was divided “according to the difference in the rights of state” into four main categories: nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The highest class remained the nobility. It was divided into personal and hereditary.

Slide 3

Peasantry
In the second half of the 19th century. peasants still made up the vast majority of the population of the Russian Empire. Peasants were part of self-governing rural societies - communities. The horseless peasant became a symbol of rural poverty. The abolition of serfdom led to a sharp increase in the need for money in the villages. The majority of peasant farms were involved in market relations.

Slide 4

Prosperous and poor peasants

Slide 5

Poverty, hardships associated with redemption payments, lack of land and other troubles firmly tied the bulk of the peasants to the community. Allotments among community members were distributed in stripes. Each community member had a small plot (strip) in different places. Many peasants went to work in the cities. The long-term isolation of men from the family, from village life and rural work led to an increased role of women not only in economic life, but also in peasant self-government. Such women devoted less time to raising children and passing on peasant experience and family traditions to them. Unprecedented phenomena appeared in the village - divorces, drunkenness increased.

Slide 6

Nobility
The highest class remained the nobility. It was divided into personal and hereditary. After the peasant reform of 1861, stratification quickly developed. To obtain personal nobility, it was now required to have a military rank of no lower than the 12th or a civilian rank of no lower than the 9th step of the table of ranks, for hereditary nobility - the 6th for military ranks and the 4th for civilians. The political position of the nobility weakened: when enlisting for service, preparedness for it and education were increasingly taken into account, and class origin was taken into account less and less.

Slide 7

Bourgeoisie
The development of capitalism in Russia led to an increase in the number of bourgeoisies. Representatives of this class played an increasingly important role in the life of the country. Among the largest capitalist-industrialists there were many who came from the wealthy merchant class. The period of the formation of the Russian bourgeoisie coincided with the active activity of the populists within the country and with the growth of the revolutionary struggle of the Western European proletariat. . Some of the founders of famous commercial and industrial families - S.V. Morozov, P.K. Konovalov - remained illiterate until the end of their days.

Slide 8

Blast furnace shop of the plant in Donbass

Slide 9

Savva Ivanovich Mamontov (1841-1918) was a hereditary merchant and entrepreneur. In 1872, he was elected director of the Moscow-Yaroslavl Railway Society. The government offered him to buy the state-owned Nevsky Plant in St. Petersburg, which produces steam locomotives, carriages and ships, including for the War Ministry. He loved to discover new names in art and look for young talents.

Slide 10

Proletariat
Another main class of industrial society was the proletariat. All wage workers belonged to the proletariat. By the mid-90s. XIX century About 10 million people were employed in the sphere of wage labor, of which 1.5 million were industrial workers. He was closely connected with the peasantry.

Slide 11

Workers' speeches for improving their situation in the 80-90s. became more numerous, sometimes they took on acute forms, accompanied by violence against factory management, destruction of factory premises and clashes with the police and even with troops.

Slide 12

Cossacks
The emergence of the Cossacks was associated with the need to develop and protect the newly acquired outlying lands. For their service, the Cossacks received land from the government. Therefore, a Cossack is both a warrior and a peasant. All men from the age of 18 were required to perform military service. They spent 3 years in the preparatory ranks, then 12 years in combat service with summer camp training, and 5 years in the reserves.

Slide 13

A Cossack came to military service with his uniform, equipment, bladed weapons and a riding horse. . In 1869, the nature of land ownership in the Cossack regions was finally determined. Communal ownership of stanitsa lands was consolidated, of which each Cossack received a share of 30 dessiatines. In the second half of the 19th century. Cossack regions become areas of commercial agriculture. . The Cossacks were also engaged in gardening, tobacco growing, viticulture and winemaking. Horse breeding successfully developed on the lands of various Cossack troops. There is a significant democratization of the intelligentsia, even the clergy is losing its former isolation. And only the Cossacks remain to a greater extent adherents to their former way of life.

Estates and classes in post-reform society. In the second half of the 19th century. The class division of society still remained. In the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire, the entire urban and rural population was divided “according to the difference in the rights of state” into four main categories: nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants.

The nobility remained the highest, privileged class. It was divided into personal and hereditary. The right to personal nobility, which was not inherited, was received by representatives of various classes who were in the public service and had the lowest rank in the Table of Ranks. By serving the Fatherland, it was possible to obtain hereditary, i.e., inherited, nobility. To do this, one had to receive a certain rank or award. The emperor could grant hereditary nobility for successful entrepreneurial or other activities.

The category of city inhabitants included hereditary honorary citizens, merchants, townspeople, and artisans. Rural inhabitants included peasants, Cossacks and other people involved in agriculture.

But along with the development of capitalist production, it was not the class affiliation of a person, enshrined in laws, that became increasingly important, but his class, i.e., economic, position. It depended on a person’s place in production and distribution of its results. The country was in the process of forming a bourgeois society with its two main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. At the same time, the predominance of semi-feudal agriculture in the Russian economy contributed to the preservation of the two main classes of feudal society - landowners and peasants.

The growth of cities, the development of industry, transport and communications, and the increase in the cultural needs of the population lead to the second half of the 19th century. to increase the share of people professionally engaged in mental work and artistic creativity - the intelligentsia: engineers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, journalists, etc.

Peasantry. In the second half of the 19th century. peasants still made up the vast majority of the population of the Russian Empire. According to the laws, representatives of this part of society differed significantly from other classes. Peasants, both former serfs and state ones, were part of self-governing rural societies - communities. Several rural societies made up the volost.

Community members were bound by mutual responsibility for paying taxes and fulfilling duties. Therefore, there was a dependence of the peasants on the community, manifested primarily in the restriction of freedom of movement.

At the village assembly, a headman, a tax collector and community representatives were elected for 3 years to participate in the volost assembly. The volost assembly elected the volost elder. The volost foreman and village headman, in addition to solving current economic issues, were also entrusted with maintaining order.

For peasants there was a special volost court, whose members were also elected by the village assembly. At the same time, the volost courts made their decisions not only on the basis of legal norms, but also guided by customs. Often these courts punished peasants for such offenses as wasting money, drunkenness, and even witchcraft. In addition, peasants were subject to certain punishments that had long been abolished for other classes. For example, volost courts had the right to sentence members of their class who had not reached 60 years of age to flogging. The community had the right to exclude particularly immoral peasants who were not amenable to re-education from among its members, which meant deportation to Siberia for those who were guilty.

The centuries-old existence of the community left a strong imprint on the psychology of the Russian peasant. His consciousness was characterized by collectivism and a developed sense of justice. Russian peasants revered their elders, viewing them as bearers of experience and traditions. This attitude extended to the emperor and served as a source of monarchism, faith in the “tsar-father” - an intercessor, guardian of truth and justice.

Russian peasants professed Orthodoxy. Unusually harsh natural conditions and the associated hard work - suffering, the results of which did not always correspond to the efforts expended, the bitter experience of lean years immersed the peasants in the world of superstitions, signs and rituals.

Liberation from serfdom brought great changes to the village. First of all, the stratification of the peasants intensified. The wealth of some and the poverty of others began to appear more clearly. The measure of prosperity was most often the presence of a certain number of horses on the farm, without which it was impossible to cultivate the land. The horseless peasant (if he was not engaged in other non-agricultural work) became a symbol of rural poverty. At the end of the 80s. in European Russia, 27% of households were horseless. Having one horse was considered a sign of poverty. There were about 29% of such farms. At the same time, from 5 to 25% of owners had up to ten horses. They bought large land holdings, hired farm laborers and expanded their farms.

The abolition of serfdom led to a sharp increase in the need for money in the villages. The peasants had to pay redemption payments and a poll tax, have funds for zemstvo and secular fees, for rent payments for land and for repaying bank loans. The majority of peasant farms were involved in market relations. The main source of peasant income was the sale of bread. But due to low yields, peasants were often forced to sell grain to the detriment of their own interests. The export of bread abroad was based on the malnutrition of the village residents and was rightly called by contemporaries “hungry export”.

8 - Danilov, 8th grade.

Prosperous and poor peasants

Poverty, hardships associated with redemption payments, lack of land and other troubles firmly tied the bulk of the peasants to the community. After all, it guaranteed its members mutual support. In addition, the distribution of land in the community helped the middle and poorest peasants to survive in case of famine. Allotments among community members were distributed in stripes, and were not consolidated in one place. Each community member had a small plot (strip) in different places. In a dry year, a plot located in a lowland could produce a quite bearable harvest; in rainy years, a plot on a hillock helped out.

At the same time, a small layer of farmers arose in the community, who were constrained by communal orders. A confrontation between two types of community members began to arise in the village. There were peasants committed to the traditions of their fathers and grandfathers, to the community with its collectivism and security, and there were also “new” peasants who wanted to farm independently at their own peril and risk.

The changes that took place undermined community foundations. Many peasants went to work in the cities. The long-term isolation of men from the family, from village life and rural work led to an increased role of women not only in economic life, but also in peasant self-government. Such women devoted less time to raising children and passing on peasant experience and family traditions to them. Unprecedented phenomena appeared in the village - divorces, drunkenness increased. Literacy among the country's rural population remained low. According to the 1897 census, it was only 17.4%.

The most important problem of Russia on the eve of the 20th century. was to turn the peasants - the bulk of the country's population - into politically mature citizens, respecting both their own and others' rights and capable of active participation in public life.

Nobility. After the peasant reform of 1861, the stratification of the nobility rapidly occurred due to the active influx of people from other segments of the population into the privileged class. In 1856, to prevent this, the classes of ranks were raised, giving the right to personal and hereditary nobility. To obtain personal nobility, it was now required to have a military rank of no lower than the 12th (second lieutenant) or a civilian rank of no lower than the 9th rank (titular councilor). Table of ranks, for hereditary - 6th for military ranks (colonel) and 4th for civilians (actual state councilor).

However, in the second half of the 19th century. the number of nobility grew: for example, in 1867 there were 652 thousand hereditary nobles, in 1897 - over 1 million 222 thousand. However, the political position of the nobility weakened somewhat: when enrolling in the service, preparedness for it and education were increasingly taken into account, less and less class origin was taken into account. By the end of the 19th century. Among the officers there were 51.2% hereditary nobles, and among high and middle level officials - 30.7%. In total, nobles made up */ 4 of the total number of employees. Most of the noble officials had already lost contact with the land, and their salaries became the only source of their existence.

Gradually, the most privileged class lost its economic advantages. After the peasant reform of 1861, the area of land owned by the nobles decreased by an average of 0.68 million acres 8* per year. The number of landowners among the nobles was declining. In 1861, 88% of the nobles were landowners, in 1878 - 56%, in 1895 - 40%. Moreover, almost half of the landowners' estates were considered small. In the post-reform period, most of the landowners continued to use semi-serf forms of farming and went bankrupt.

At the same time, some of the nobles widely participated in business activities: in railway construction, industry, banking and insurance. Funds for business were received from the redemption under the reform of 1861, from the leasing of land and on collateral. Some nobles became owners of large industrial enterprises, took prominent positions in companies, and became owners of shares and real estate. A significant part of the nobles joined the ranks of owners of small commercial and industrial establishments. Many acquired the profession of doctors, lawyers, and became writers, artists, and performers. At the same time, some of the nobles went bankrupt, joining the lower strata of society.

Thus, the decline of the landowner economy accelerated the stratification of the nobility and weakened the influence of the landowners in the state. In the second half of the 19th century. the nobles lost their dominant position in the life of Russian society: political power was concentrated in the hands of officials, economic power in the hands of the bourgeoisie, the intelligentsia became the ruler of thoughts, and the class of once all-powerful landowners gradually disappeared.

Bourgeoisie. The development of capitalism in Russia led to an increase in the number of bourgeoisies. Continuing to be officially listed as nobles, merchants, bourgeois, and peasants, representatives of this class played an increasingly important role in the life of the country. Among the largest capitalist-industrialists there were many who came from the wealthy merchant class (Gubonin, Mamontovs), nobility (Bobrinskys, Branitskys, Pototskys, Shipovs, von Meck), but there were also many peasants, especially Old Believers (Morozovs, Ryabushinskys, Guchkovs, Konovalovs). Since the time of the “railway fever” of the 60s and 70s. The bourgeoisie was actively replenished at the expense of officials. By serving on the boards of private banks and industrial enterprises, officials provided a link between state power and private production. They helped industrialists obtain lucrative orders and concessions. Abuses on this

Blast furnace shop of the plant in Donbass

soil acquired such proportions that the government was forced in 1884 to prohibit senior officials from engaging in entrepreneurial activities.

Among the largest domestic entrepreneurs, in addition to the Russians, there were representatives of many peoples of Russia - Ukrainians (I. G. Kharitonenko, the Tereshchenko family), Armenians (A. I. Mantashev, S. G. Lianozov, Gukasovs), Azerbaijanis (T. Tagiyev, M. . Nagiyev), Jews (B.A. Kamenka, Brodskys, Gunzburgs, Polyakovs). Many foreign entrepreneurs also appeared in Russia (Nobel, J. Hughes, G. A. Brocard, JI. Knop, G. Hoover, JI. A. Urquhart).

The period of the formation of the Russian bourgeoisie coincided with the active activity of the populists within the country and with the growth of the revolutionary struggle of the Western European proletariat. Therefore, the bourgeoisie in Russia looked at the autocratic government as its protector from revolutionary uprisings.

And although the interests of the bourgeoisie were often infringed by the state, they did not dare to take active action against the autocracy.

For a long time, the lack of culture and education among entrepreneurs was largely compensated by their natural intelligence, colossal energy and enormous capacity for work. Some of the founders of famous commercial and industrial families - S.V. Morozov, P.K. Konovalov - remained illiterate until the end of their days. But they tried to give their children a good education, including a university education. Sons were often sent abroad to study commercial and industrial practices.

Many representatives of this new generation of the bourgeoisie sought to support scientists and representatives of the creative intelligentsia, and invested money in the creation of libraries and art galleries. Taking care of the development of education and healthcare, industrialists and traders opened hospitals, shelters, and various educational institutions. Significant role in expanding charity and patronage played by A. A. Korzinkin, K. T. Soldatenkov, P. K. Botkin and D. P. Botkin, S. M. Tretyakov and P. M. Tretyakov, S. I. Mamontov.

Savva Ivanovich Mamontov (1841-1918) was a hereditary merchant and entrepreneur. He studied at the Mining Institute and then at the Faculty of Law of Moscow University. Mamontov was fond of acting in amateur performances and had extraordinary musical abilities. He lived for several years in Italy, where he studied singing and painting. In 1872, he was elected director of the Moscow-Yaroslavl Railway Society. Then he built the Donetsk railway. The government offered him to buy the state-owned Nevsky Plant in St. Petersburg, which produces steam locomotives, carriages and ships, including for the War Ministry. To supply the plant with domestic raw materials, Mamontov established a joint-stock company of East Siberian iron smelters.

Mamontov provided significant assistance to such artists as V. A. Serov, K. A. Korovin, M. A. Vrubel. He loved to discover new names in art and look for young talents. The great Russian singer F.I. Chaliapin began his performances on the stage of the Private Opera he created in Moscow.

On his Abramtsevo estate, Mamontov created a unique art center, where he not only stored collected folk art objects, but also organized the production of ceramics (fired clay). Abramtsevo has also become a kind of creative home for talented Russian artists.

Proletariat. Another main class of industrial society was the proletariat. The proletariat included all hired workers, including those employed in agriculture and crafts, but its core were factory, mining and railway workers - the industrial proletariat. His education took place simultaneously with the industrial revolution. By the mid-90s. XIX century About 10 million people were employed in the wage labor sector, of which 1.5 million were industrial workers.

The Russian working class had a number of characteristics. He was closely connected with the peasantry. A significant part of the factories and factories were located in villages, and the industrial proletariat itself was constantly replenished with people from the villages. Representatives of different nationalities became workers. In Russia there was a significantly greater concentration of the proletariat in large enterprises than in other countries. In 1890, 3/4 of all factory and mining workers were concentrated in enterprises with more than 100 workers, including almost half of them working in enterprises with 500 or more people.

The hired factory worker was, as a rule, a first-generation proletarian and maintained a close connection with the village. More than half of the proletarians continued to combine industrial and agricultural work. The rhythm of work in many factories took into account agricultural needs. The owners hired workers during the period from Intercession (October 1, old style) to Easter (March - April), and during the harvest season they were forced to release them to work in the villages.

In the city, many workers adhered to the usual norms of community life. In factory barracks (dormitories), they settled not according to the workshops, but according to the provinces and districts from which they came. The workers from one locality were headed by a master, who recruited them to the enterprise. Workers had difficulty getting used to urban conditions. Separation from home often led to a drop in moral level and drunkenness. The workers worked long hours and, in order to send money home, huddled in damp and dark rooms and ate poorly.

Workers waiting to be hired

at the Nikolskaya Morozov manufactory in the city of Orekhovo-Zuevo.

The labor movement during this period was a response to the specific actions of “their” factory owners: increasing fines, lowering prices, forced payment of wages in goods from the factory store, etc. It was generally in the nature of an economic struggle in order to improve working conditions and the position of workers. The workers did not raise the issue of their political rights.

Clergy. Church ministers - the clergy - constituted a special class, divided into black and white clergy. The black clergy - monks - took on special obligations, including leaving the "world". The monks lived in numerous monasteries.

The white clergy lived in the “world”; their main task was to perform worship and religious preaching. From the end of the 17th century. a procedure was established according to which the place of a deceased priest was inherited, as a rule, by his son or another relative. This contributed to the transformation of the white clergy into a closed class.

Although the clergy in Russia belonged to a privileged part of society, rural priests, who made up the vast majority of it, eked out a miserable existence, as they fed on their own labor and at the expense of parishioners, who themselves often barely made ends meet. In addition, as a rule, they were burdened with large families.

The Orthodox Church had its own educational institutions. At the end of the 19th century. in Russia there were 4 theological academies, in which about a thousand people studied, and 58 seminaries, training up to 19 thousand future clergy.

Transformations of the 60s The Orthodox clergy were also affected. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included all members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the church affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1869-1879 the incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of about 2 thousand small parishes and the establishment of annual salaries for them. Old age pensions were introduced for clergy.

The liberal spirit of reforms carried out in the field of education also affected church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, children of clergy were allowed to enter gymnasiums, and in 1866 - to military schools. In 1867, the Synod decided to abolish the heredity of parishes and the right of admission to seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures destroyed class barriers and contributed to the renewal of the clergy.

Intelligentsia. At the end of the 19th century. Of the more than 125 million inhabitants of Russia, 870 thousand could be classified as intelligentsia. The country had over 3 thousand scientists and writers, 4 thousand engineers and technicians, 79.5 thousand teachers and 68 thousand private teachers, 18.8 thousand doctors, 18 thousand artists, musicians and actors.

In the first half of the 19th century. The ranks of the intelligentsia were replenished mainly at the expense of the nobles. After the abolition of serfdom and the reforms of the 60-70s, which made education more accessible to representatives of all ranks and ranks, the number of intelligentsia began to grow at the expense of young people of all ranks. Among the merchants were artists I.K. Aivazovsky and I.I. Shishkin, composer A.K. Glazunov, musicians A.G. and N.G. Rubinstein. Writer A.P. Chekhov was born into the family of a small merchant. The sons of rural priests were the artists V. M. and A. M. Vasnetsov, the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky; historian S. M. Solovyov was the son of a Moscow priest. The artist I. N. Kramskoy and the singer F. I. Chaliapin were born into poor middle-class families. The artist I. E. Repin was the son of a military settler, and V. I. Surikov came from Siberian Cossacks. All of them knew well the needs and aspirations of ordinary people and sought to reflect them in their work.

Some of the intelligentsia were never able to find practical application for their knowledge. Neither industry, nor zemstvos, nor other institutions could provide employment for many university graduates whose families experienced financial difficulties. Receiving a higher education was not a guarantee of an increase in living standards, and therefore, social status. This gave rise to a mood of protest.

But besides material reward for their work, the most important need of the intelligentsia is freedom of expression, without which true creativity is unthinkable. Therefore, in the absence of political freedoms in the country, the anti-government sentiments of a significant part of the intelligentsia intensified.

Cossacks. The emergence of the Cossacks was associated with the need to develop and protect the newly acquired outlying lands. For their service, the Cossacks received land from the government. Therefore, a Cossack is both a warrior and a peasant.

At the end of the 19th century. there were 11 Cossack troops - Don, Kuban, Terek, Astrakhan, Ural, Orenburg, Semirechenskoe, Siberian, Transbaikal, Amur, Ussuri. The Cossack population reached 4 million people, including up to 400 thousand in military service. All Cossack troops and regions were subordinate to the Main Directorate of Cossack Troops of the Ministry of War, headed by the ataman of the Cossack troops, who from 1827 was the heir to the throne. At the head of each army was a “mandated” (appointed) ataman, with him - a military headquarters that managed the affairs of the army. In the villages and hamlets there were stanitsa and hamlet atas

mana, elected at gatherings (Cossack circle). All men from the age of 18 were required to perform military service. They spent 3 years in the preparatory ranks, then 12 years in combat service with summer camp training, and 5 years in the reserves. A Cossack came to military service with his uniform, equipment, bladed weapons and a riding horse.

In villages and villages there were special primary and secondary Cossack schools, where much attention was paid to the military training of students.

In 1869, the nature of land ownership in the Cossack regions was finally determined. Communal ownership of stanitsa lands was consolidated, of which each Cossack received a share of 30 dessiatines. The remaining lands constituted military reserves. It was intended mainly to create new village sites as the Cossack population grew. Forests, pastures, and reservoirs were in public use.

In the second half of the 19th century. Cossack regions become areas of commercial agriculture. The lease of military lands, which the Cossacks rented to the newcomer (non-resident) population, is developing. The Cossacks were also engaged in gardening, tobacco growing, viticulture and winemaking. Horse breeding successfully developed on the lands of various Cossack troops. And although the stratification did not escape the Cossacks villages, nevertheless, the provision of land here was much higher than among peasants, especially in European Russia.

In the second half of the 19th century. there was a breakdown of class barriers and the formation of new groups of society along economic and class lines. The new entrepreneurial class - the bourgeoisie - includes representatives of the merchant class, successful peasant entrepreneurs, and the nobility. The class of hired workers - the proletariat - is replenished primarily at the expense of peasants, but a tradesman, the son of a village priest, and even a “noble gentleman” were not uncommon in this environment. There is a significant democratization of the intelligentsia, even the clergy is losing its former isolation. And only the Cossacks remain to a greater extent adherents to their former way of life.

Questions and tasks

1. What new groups have appeared in Russian society? What are the reasons for their appearance? 2. What new phenomena occurred among the peasants? 3. How the situation has changed

nie of the nobility? 4. What segments of the population were the bourgeoisie made up of? How did the appearance of the Russian merchant class change? 5. What were the characteristics of the Russian proletariat? 6. What changed in the second half of the 19th century. in the position of the clergy? 7. How did the formation of the intelligentsia proceed? 8. What features of the Cossacks allow us to call it a “special” class?

Documentation

About the Russian merchants (from the book by F. I. Chaliapin “Mask and Soul”)

In Moscow, I looked with great interest at the merchant circle, which sets the tone for all Moscow life. And not only Moscow. I think that in the half century preceding the revolution, the Russian merchant class played a leading role in the everyday life of the entire country. What is a Russian merchant? This is, in essence, a simple Russian peasant who, after being freed from slavery, came to work in the city...

Exhausted and sweating, he studies literacy in his village in the most unusual ways. According to dream books, according to missals, based on popular stories about Bova Korolevich and Eruslan Lazarevich. He puts together the letters in the old-fashioned way: az, beeches, lead, verb... Still semi-literate, he shows enviable intelligence. Being neither a technician nor an engineer, he suddenly invents some kind of machine for grinding potatoes or finds in the ground some special materials for wheel ointment - in general, something incomprehensible to the mind. He figures out how to plow the tithe with the least amount of labor in order to get the greatest income. He does not go to the state-owned beer store and is careful not to kill precious time with holiday walks. He spends all his time working in the stable, then in the garden, then in the field, then in the forest. It is unknown how - he does not read newspapers - he learns that potato flour is sold cheaply and that, having bought it now at a cheap price in such and such a province, in a month he will sell it at a higher price in another.

And so, you see, he begins to live in an advantageous position over other men, who simply do not have his diligence... From the point of view of the latest trends of thought in Russia, he is a “kulak”, a criminal type. I bought it cheap - I deceived someone, sold it expensive - I deceived someone again... But for me, I confess, this testifies that this person has, as it should be, intelligence, intelligence, agility and energy...

Otherwise, a Russian peasant, having escaped from the village at a young age, begins to build his fortune as a future merchant or industrialist in Moscow itself. He sells sbiten at the Khitrovo market, sells pies, pours hemp oil on buckwheat in trays, cheerfully shouts to his comrade and with a sidelong glance slyly observes the stitches of life, how and what is sewn and what is sewn to what. Life is unprepossessing for him. He himself often spends the night with tramps at the same Khitrovo market or at Presnya, he eats tripe in a cheap tavern, and drinks bits of tea with black bread. He is freezing and hungry, but he is always cheerful, does not complain and hopes for the future. He is not embarrassed by what goods he has to trade, trading in different ones. Today with icons, tomorrow with stockings, the day after tomorrow with amber, or even little books. Thus he becomes an “economist”. And there, lo and behold, he already has a shop or a factory. And then, guess what, he’s already a merchant of the 1st guild. Wait - his eldest son is the first to buy a Gauguin, the first to buy a Picasso, the first to take a Matisse to Moscow. And we, the enlightened ones, look with disgusting mouths agape at all the Matisses, Manets and Renoirs that we still do not understand and say nasally and critically:

Petty tyrant...

Meanwhile, the tyrants quietly accumulated wonderful treasures of art, created galleries, museums, first-class theaters, set up hospitals and shelters throughout Moscow...

From “Memoirs of an Old Worker” by E. N. Nemchinov

In the fall of 1881, I became an apprentice mechanic for 3 years 8 months - my own clothes and shoes, the owner's table and apartment.

The order and work in the workshop were truly backbreaking. There were 16 masters and 19 boys working in the workshop. The bedroom was common for everyone, there were common beds below, and the craftsmen slept side by side, all 16 people side by side.

On May 4, 1887, I went to work in the Brest railway workshops, in the turning department... Working in railway workshops, compared to working in small metalworking enterprises, had great advantages: a 10-hour working day, a week of vacation for Easter, and a week for Christmastide. two weeks, accurate payment of earnings. Misunderstandings with the administration were rare, and when they did occur, it was most of all on the basis of piece rates and were expressed in this form: the workers of the locomotive repair shop and the turning shop went out to the ditch opposite the shop office or, bypassing the shop office, went to the management office, to the manager of the Yarkovsky workshops. mu, in front of whose door all the workers gathered. The manager came forward, those who considered their brigade the most offended by the prices came forward... Usually the explanations ended with the manager’s assurance to reconsider the prices. As a result, pennies were added, but it was not the increase that was valuable, but the organization of the general demand that was valuable...

From “Letters from the Village” by A. N. Engelhardt

Even if a peasant has a surplus of bread, he still will not sell it, but wants to have enough bread for “new”, so that he can live on his bread for another year... If a peasant sells bread in small quantities in the fall, then This is either a drunkard who sells for drinks, or a poor man who has nothing to buy salt, tar, and has nothing to pay the priest for a prayer service on a holiday...

Our peasant farmer eats the worst rye bread, slurps empty gray cabbage soup, considers buckwheat porridge with hemp oil a luxury, has no idea about apple pies, and he will even laugh that there are countries where sissy men eat apple pies and farm laborers They feed the same. Our peasant farmer does not have enough wheat bread to feed his child; The woman will chew the rye crust that she eats, put it in a rag and suck it...

Assignment for documents: Using the text of the paragraph and documents, compose stories about the life of merchants and workers in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

Expanding vocabulary:

Patronage is the patronage of sciences and arts by rich and influential people.

Stanitsa is a large Cossack village.

Breviary - a book with the texts of church services, prayers for liturgical rites performed at the request of the believers themselves (baptism, wedding, memorial service, etc.).

Task No. 1.

Draw lines showing from which classes the classes and social strata of the population were formed at the end of the 19th century.

Note. The question is quite far-fetched, since connecting lines can be drawn between all categories. For example, at the end of the 19th century in the Russian army, 54% of officers came from the nobility, 26% from the burghers and peasants, 14% from the intelligentsia, 3% from the clergy and 3% from merchants. And a similar picture was observed in every social stratum.

Task No. 2.

A. N. Engelhardt. Letters from the village. Letter nine. 1880
“...The American sells the surplus, and we sell the necessary daily bread. The American farmer himself eats excellent wheat bread, fatty ham and lamb, drinks tea, eats sweet apple pie for lunch... Our peasant farmer eats the worst rye bread... slurps empty gray cabbage soup, considers buckwheat porridge with hemp oil a luxury , has no idea about apple pies, and he will even laugh that there are countries where sissy men eat apple pies and feed farm laborers the same. Our peasant farmer does not have enough wheat bread to feed his child; The woman will chew the rye crust that she eats, put it in a rag and suck it...
...We send wheat, good clean rye abroad, to the Germans, who will not eat any rubbish. We burn the best, clean rye for wine, but the worst rye, with fluff, fire, calico and all the waste obtained from cleaning rye for distilleries - this is what the peasant eats. But not only does the man eat the worst bread, he is also malnourished. If there is enough bread in the villages, they eat three times... they lean more on spring grass, potatoes, and add hemp seed to the bread. Of course, the stomach is full, but bad food makes people lose weight, get sick, and the kids grow worse..."
1. What features of peasant life did you learn from the document? 2. Why were Russian peasants forced to sell bread to the detriment of their nutrition?

1. A feature of peasant life was extreme poverty, which arose due to the need to sell grain to the detriment of their own interests. 2. The reason for this was the significantly increased mandatory payments (taxes, redemption, interest) collected from peasants in conditions of land shortage.

Task No. 3.

Fill the table.

Functions of the peasant community
Household	Land ownership and redistribution of land, fulfillment of duties, management of communal farming and communal funds
Social	Mutual assistance, mutual responsibility, preservation of traditions and customs, fight against immoral behavior
Fiscal police	Collecting taxes, maintaining order, resolving disputes and minor court cases, apprehending fugitives and vagabonds

Task No. 4.

Fill the table.

Task No. 5.

Fill in the missing names in the text.

From the memoirs of K. S. Stanislavsky.
“I lived at a time when a great revival began in the fields of art, science, and aesthetics. As is known, in Moscow this was greatly facilitated by the then young merchants, who first entered the arena of Russian life and, along with their commercial and industrial affairs, became closely interested in art.
For example, Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov , creator of the famous gallery, which he donated to the city of Moscow. From morning to night he worked either in an office or in a factory, and in the evenings he studied in his gallery or talked with young artists in whom he sensed talent. After a year or two, their paintings ended up in the gallery, and they themselves became first simply famous, and then famous...
Sergey Ivanovich Shchukin assembled a gallery of French artists of a new direction, where everyone who wanted to get acquainted with painting was admitted free of charge. His brother, Pyotr Ivanovich Shchukin , created a large museum of Russian antiquities.
Aleksey Aleksandrovich Bakhrushin founded at his own expense the only theater museum in Russia, collecting in it what belonged to Russian and partly to Western European theater.
And here’s another excellent figure among the builders of Russian cultural life... I’m talking about the famous philanthropist Savva Ivanovich Mamontov , who was at the same time a singer, an opera artist, a director, a playwright, and the creator of Russian private opera, and a patron of art... and a builder of many Russian railway lines."

Task No. 6.

Read the document and provide written answers to the questions.

Demands of Morozov workers
"1. ...We, the workers, demand and ask that fines not exceed 5% of the ruble earned and that the worker be warned about his poor work and called in no more than twice during the month.
2. The deduction for absenteeism should not exceed more than one ruble, but so that the owner would also be obliged to pay the worker for absenteeism that occurs through the fault of the owner: such as for simple... breakdown of machines and their conversion to other work, etc. ., etc. ... at least forty kopecks per day or twenty kopecks per shift.
3. ...So that every worker can receive a full payment without any deduction or delay, upon application by the workers 15 days in advance about their unwillingness to continue working. Also, the owner is obliged to inform the worker 15 days in advance about his pay, and all this would be recorded in the pay notebooks...
4. ...Full satisfaction of the workers for absenteeism from the day of our stop, which occurred through the fault of the owner. At the request of the workers, a day of absenteeism should be counted as no less than 40 kopecks. in a day.
Unhindered issuance of grub until the workers are satisfied in their demands, without any receipt... Also for the future... the payment of wages would not be delayed beyond the 15th or the first Saturday after the 15th.
Free choice of the headman in the artels and so that the headman cannot serve for more than three months... Dismiss from their positions those employees and foremen whom the workers find necessary and indicate with a separate note.”
1. What are the reasons for the workers’ strike at Morozov’s Nikolskaya manufactory? 2. Did workers make political demands? 3. What does the very fact of putting forward a collective demand of workers indicate? 4. How were the demands of Morozov’s workers reflected in Russian factory legislation?

1. The reasons for the strike were the deterioration of the workers’ situation, brutal exploitation by the owners and the arbitrariness of the administration. 2. No political demands were made. 3. On the formation of an organized labor movement. 4. Factory legislation adopted in 1886 determined the procedure for hiring and firing, the relationship between management and workers, systematized fines and the organization of labor in enterprises.

1863-1866

Children of clergy and seminary graduates are allowed to receive secular education

Removing class barriers and renewing the clergy

1867

Elimination of hereditary parishes and the right to receive spiritual education for all Orthodox Christians

1869-1879

Liquidation of small parishes, establishment of salaries and pensions for the clergy

Improving the financial situation and turning the clergy into civil servants

Task No. 8.

Compose the text using the phrases below.
Abolition of serfdom. Liberalization of education. Democratization of the intelligentsia. Preservation of class privileges. Lack of political freedoms. Increased anti-government sentiment.

After abolition of serfdom At the initial stage of reforms, steps were taken to liberalization of education. This contributed to the formation and democratization of the intelligentsia- a new social layer. But, lack of political freedoms And preservation of class privileges hindered the development of society and led to strengthening anti-government sentiments.

Exercise 1. Draw lines showing from which classes the classes and social strata of the population were formed at the end of the 19th century.

Click to enlarge

Connect the following points of the diagram with lines:
Nobility: landowners, bourgeoisie, intelligentsia, bureaucracy, officers.
Merchants: bourgeoisie, intelligentsia, bureaucracy.
Philistinism: bourgeoisie, proletariat, intelligentsia, bureaucracy, officers.
Peasantry: bourgeoisie, proletariat.
Clergy: intelligentsia, bureaucracy.

Note. Essentially, connecting lines can be drawn between all categories. For example, at the endXIXcentury in the Russian army, 54% of officers came from the nobility, 26% from the bourgeoisie and peasants, 14% from the intelligentsia, 3% from the clergy and 3% from merchants. And a similar picture was observed in every social stratum.

Task 2.

A. N. Engelhardt. Lettersfromvillages. Letter nine. 1880
“...The American sells the surplus, and we sell the necessary daily bread. The American farmer himself eats excellent wheat bread, fatty ham and lamb, drinks tea, eats sweet apple pie for lunch... Our peasant farmer eats the worst rye bread... slurps empty gray cabbage soup, considers buckwheat porridge with hemp oil a luxury , has no idea about apple pies, and he will even laugh that there are countries where sissy men eat apple pies and feed farm laborers the same. Our peasant farmer does not have enough wheat bread to feed his child; The woman will chew the rye crust that she eats, put it in a rag and suck it...
...We send wheat, good clean rye abroad, to the Germans, who will not eat any rubbish. We burn the best, clean rye for wine, but the worst rye, with fluff, fire, calico and all the waste obtained from cleaning rye for distilleries - this is what the peasant eats. But not only does the man eat the worst bread, he is also malnourished. If there is enough bread in the villages, they eat three times... they lean more on spring grass, potatoes, and add hemp seed to the bread. Of course, the stomach is full, but bad food makes people lose weight, get sick, and the kids grow worse..."

1. What features of peasant life did you learn from the document? 2. Why were Russian peasants forced to sell bread to the detriment of their nutrition?

Task 3. Fill the table.

Task 4. Fill the table.

Task 5. Fill in the missing names in the text.

From the memoirs of K. S. Stanislavsky.
“I lived at a time when a great revival began in the fields of art, science, and aesthetics. As is known, in Moscow this was greatly facilitated by the then young merchants, who first entered the arena of Russian life and, along with their commercial and industrial affairs, became closely interested in art.
For example, Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov , creator of the famous gallery, which he donated to the city of Moscow. From morning to night he worked either in an office or in a factory, and in the evenings he studied in his gallery or talked with young artists in whom he sensed talent. After a year or two, their paintings ended up in the gallery, and they themselves became first simply famous, and then famous...
Sergey Ivanovich Shchukin assembled a gallery of French artists of a new direction, where everyone who wanted to get acquainted with painting was admitted free of charge. His brother, Pyotr Ivanovich Shchukin , created a large museum of Russian antiquities.
Aleksey Aleksandrovich Bakhrushin founded at his own expense the only theater museum in Russia, collecting in it what belonged to Russian and partly to Western European theater.
And here’s another excellent figure among the builders of Russian cultural life... I’m talking about the famous philanthropist Savva Ivanovich Mamontov , who was at the same time a singer, an opera artist, a director, a playwright, and the creator of Russian private opera, and a patron of art... and a builder of many Russian railway lines."

Task 6. Read the document and provide written answers to the questions.

Demands of the Morozov workers.
"1. ...We, the workers, demand and ask that fines not exceed 5% of the ruble earned and that the worker be warned about his poor work and called in no more than twice during the month.
2. The deduction for absenteeism should not exceed more than one ruble, but so that the owner would also be obliged to pay the worker for absenteeism that occurs through the fault of the owner: such as for simple... breakdown of machines and their conversion to other work, etc. ., etc. ... at least forty kopecks per day or twenty kopecks per shift.
3. ...So that every worker can receive a full payment without any deduction or delay, upon application by the workers 15 days in advance about their unwillingness to continue working. Also, the owner is obliged to inform the worker 15 days in advance about his pay, and all this would be recorded in the pay notebooks...
4. ...Full satisfaction of the workers for absenteeism from the day of our stop, which occurred through the fault of the owner. At the request of the workers, a day of absenteeism should be counted as no less than 40 kopecks. in a day.
Unhindered issuance of grub until the workers are satisfied in their demands, without any receipt... Also for the future... the payment of wages would not be delayed beyond the 15th or the first Saturday after the 15th.
Free choice of the headman in the artels and so that the headman cannot serve for more than three months... Dismiss from their positions those employees and foremen whom the workers find necessary and indicate with a separate note.”

1. What are the reasons for the workers’ strike at Morozov’s Nikolskaya manufactory? 2. Did workers make political demands? 3. What does the very fact of putting forward a collective demand of workers indicate? 4. How were the demands of Morozov’s workers reflected in Russian factory legislation?

Task 7. Fill the table.

Changes in the position of the Orthodox clergy

date	Government measures	Their consequences
1862-1864	Creation of the Special Presence and Parish Trustees	Improving the financial situation of the clergy
1863-1866	Children of clergy and seminary graduates are allowed to receive secular education	Removing class barriers and renewing the clergy
1867	Elimination of hereditary parishes and the right to receive spiritual education for all Orthodox Christians	Removing class barriers and renewing the clergy
1869-1879	Liquidation of small parishes, establishment of salaries and pensions for the clergy	Improving the financial situation and turning the clergy into civil servants

Task 8. Compose the text using the phrases below.

Abolition of serfdom. Liberalization of education. Democratization of the intelligentsia. Preservation of class privileges. Lack of political freedoms. Increased anti-government sentiment.

Afterabolition of serfdom At the initial stage of reforms, steps were taken toliberalization of education . This contributed to the formation anddemocratization of the intelligentsia - a new social layer. But,lack of political freedoms Andpreservation of class privileges hindered the development of society and led tostrengthening anti-government sentiments .