CULTURE AND LIFE OF THE POPULATION OF China in the XVI-XIX centuries.

gained weight Tatarko Galina

Introduction

Culture and life of the Chinese population in the 16th – 19th centuries

II. Philosophy. Development of social thought

III. Literature

IV. Art

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

When characterizing the culture of a country, in particular the culture of China, one cannot help but touch upon the political, economic and social situation at the moment.

Strong centralized state power in China had ancient and lasting traditions. Its most important support was the right of supreme ownership of land. The state, which exercises strict control over society (as in all eastern despotisms), has long taken upon itself the function of managing the economy. “Agriculture, trade and management are the three main functions of the state” - so a reformer-legist Shan Yang (390 - 338 BC) formulated the concept that guided the government in its activities throughout almost the entire history of China.

In the XIV – XVII centuries. state production covered porcelain production, shipbuilding, coal mining, foundry, etc. The central government regulated market prices, and sometimes even loan interest, fighting usury. State trade did not always withstand competition with private trade, but the government compensated for this by imposing heavy taxes on merchants and purchasing goods from them at fixed prices set by the treasury. In addition, it allowed officials to engage in trade, exempting them from taxes and thus turning them into a force opposing private trade.

And only in the 16th – 17th centuries. In China, a certain shift occurred: large-scale land ownership expanded, and manufactories using hired labor began to be created (including dispersed ones). Although the state still had a monopoly on the extraction and processing of minerals, private coal and silver mining enterprises sprang up secretly in remote mountainous areas. The Qing government turned a blind eye to the growth of private land ownership. Perhaps because agricultural intensification made it possible even in these

conditions to receive a large amount of taxes.

Bourgeois relations defended their right to exist, but, as a rule, they lost in the unequal struggle with state power, and therefore remained unformed.

IN XVII – XVIII centuries China was a powerful power with a well-established economy, a strong army and sufficiently large internal potential, which allowed it to maintain independence in relations with Europe. The weakness of traditional Confucian China manifested itself later, in XIX c., when the West began to increasingly intensify its colonial policy.

china culture literature art

Culture and life of the Chinese population in XVI – XIX centuries

The Ming period of Chinese history is characterized by the development of a culture enriched with new achievements.

Literature was further developed; mainly extensive historical works were published, new encyclopedias appeared, which in their completeness surpassed any publications of this kind in other countries.

Chinese art, especially architecture, has also become enriched. A significant step in its development was made by varnishing and the production of the finest porcelain.

Social thought and science developed despite the fact that they were limited and constrained by the framework of medieval Confucian scholasticism.

In Europe, works of Chinese culture became widely known in the 17th and especially in the 18th centuries.

Missionaries of Catholic orders and members of the Russian Orthodox mission studied Chinese culture, collecting information about agriculture, crafts, art, and the life of the population, translated the works of Chinese scientists, and wrote about everything they learned to Europe. They themselves wrote works about China and published them in almost all European languages. Books about China aroused constant interest. It is not for nothing that in the works of Voltaire and in the works of French enlighteners there are so many discussions about this great people.

In Russia, M.V. Lomonosov paid a lot of attention to the achievements of Chinese culture and expressed a desire to see the history of China written in Russian.

Already in the 18th century. leading figures in Europe highly appreciated the contribution of the Chinese people to the treasury of world culture.

The end of the 18th and the first decades of the 19th century. traditionally considered the time of decline of Chinese culture associated with feudalism.

Old genres continued to dominate in literature and art:

regulated poetry, traditional landscape, etc. Even narrative prose, which had been a “common” type of literature in China since ancient times, gradually lost the features of a critical, social orientation, so clearly represented in the novels of the 18th century. “The Dream in the Red Chamber” and “The Unofficial History of Confucianism”, and acquired an adventurous, entertaining character.

An event in the cultural life of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. was the publication of two collections of Chinese folk songs. However, during the same period, hidden or, at first glance, not very significant processes related to the revolutionary movement and the development of bourgeois relations emerged in Chinese culture.

The turning point was the mid-19th century. - the era of the Taiping uprising, the progressive ideas of which had a huge impact on the public consciousness of the Chinese people.

I . The science

In the 16th – 17th centuries. Interest in China in technology, natural and mathematical sciences has increased markedly. During the Ming period, an improved water-lifting wheel for irrigating fields appeared, and bellows were used more widely than before in metal smelting. Shipbuilding is developing. A clear indicator of this were the expeditions of the 15th century, one of which simultaneously sent 62 large sea ships, carrying about 28 thousand people and significant cargo. All these ships, distinguished by their large carrying capacity, were built in China.

In the 16th century a multi-volume work on pharmacology appeared - “Treatise on Trees and Plants” (author Li Shi-zhen). This work contained a description of not only medicinal herbs, but also minerals, as well as the animal world. The work on medicine of the scientist Zhang Chung-ching was very popular.

In the 17th century A large economic encyclopedia was published, compiled by the famous Xu Guang-chi. She covered the development of agriculture and agricultural technology not only in China, but partially also in Europe. In the 30s a work was written that was a kind of encyclopedia covering the development of crafts in China at various times.

Philological history received special development. Chinese linguistics has focused on the study of living northern dialects of the Chinese language. The largest encyclopedist scientist of the 17th century, in particular a philologist, was Gu Yan-wu, who owns the “Pentateuch on Phonetics” - a classic work on historical and modern phonetics, as well as other works on history, economics, philosophy, philology, etc. . Gu Yan-wu was not only a scientist, but also a historical figure, a patriot who took an active part in the fight against the Manchus.

Official historiography continued to develop: dynastic histories were published, continuations of the chronicle “The General Mirror Helping Governance,” begun in the 11th century, were compiled.

In the Minsk Empire, other genres of historical literature also developed, for example, works that described facts not in chronological, but in event order (the so-called “Description of events from beginning to end”), the compilation of which began in the 11th – 12th centuries. Geographical works were also published, which provided data on administrative divisions in various periods, geographical and economic information on individual provinces, counties and cities, as well as a brief history of their formation. An important geographical work is the work of Ku Yan-wu entitled “The Book on the Disadvantages and Benefits of Regions and Destinations in the Celestial Empire.” This essay provides not only a geographical description of the country, but also highlights the socio-economic situation of China. Historical works included

various codes and collections.

In the XVII – XVIII centuries. philology was mainly concerned with criticizing ancient written monuments and establishing their authenticity. However, the tasks were not only scientific: by criticizing ancient monuments, scientists sought to undermine the foundations of Sung philosophy, which relied on these monuments. For example, Yang Shuo-ju (1636 - 1704), one of the founders of this trend in philology, argued that the Shu-ching, the ancient Book of History, one of the most important books of the Confucian canon, highly valued by the Sung rulers, arose in the 4th – 3rd centuries. BC, i.e. it represents a later forgery of an allegedly ancient text. Hu Wei (1633 – 1714) in turn declared that the I Ching, the Song philosophy of nature, comes entirely from Taoist sources. Subsequently, the main representatives of philological science in China were Hui Chong (1697 - 1758) and Dai Zhen (1723 - 1777). The first rejected the authenticity of all ancient monuments except those that arose during the Han Empire. On this basis, a whole school grew up, which set as its goal the study of sources from the Han times.

The struggle of opposition movements also unfolded on the basis of the study of history. The Manchu rulers, imitating the Chinese dynasties, formed a special committee to compile the history of the preceding Ming dynasty. The political goal of such an empire was to demonstrate the historical inevitability of the fall of the previous dynasty and its replacement by a new one.

At the same time, “private” histories of the Ming dynasty appeared, refuting the Manchu interpretation of history, to which the authorities responded with decisive measures: repressions, executions, and references to opposition philologists and historians. This continued in the 17th – 18th centuries. Books that were objectionable to the government were confiscated. They were included in the category of “forbidden books.”

Since 1772, a collection of all printed books ever published in China was undertaken. The collection lasted 20 years. In this way it was formed

a huge library of 172,626 volumes housed in book depositories in Beijing and other cities. 360 people were involved in analyzing and processing the collected material. All books were divided into four categories, which is why the entire library received the name “Si ku quanshu”, i.e. “Complete collection of books of the four repositories.” A few years later, 3,457 titles were released in a new edition, and the remaining 6,766 titles were described in a thoroughly annotated catalogue. Of great value are the explanatory dictionary “Kangxi Zidian” and the collection of quotations and expressions “Peiwan Yunfu” compiled during the reign of Kangxi.

However, this event also had its downside. In fact, it was a grandiose operation to confiscate books that could serve as support for all sorts of “dangerous thoughts,” and an equally grandiose operation to falsify texts. In the new editions that were published, all undesirable passages were removed, even the names of the books were changed.

II . Philosophy. Development of social thought

The most famous Chinese philosopher of the early 16th century. was Wang Yang-ming (or Wang Shou-zhen, 1472 - 1528). Wang Yang-ming argued that the real world does not exist outside of our consciousness, that the whole world, all things are a product of the spirit or heart. “There are no things outside the mind, and there is no mind outside of things,” said Wang Yang-ming, “nothing exists outside our mind”; “The heart, consciousness is the root and source of everything.” According to Wang Yang-ming, the criterion of truth is subjective consciousness; a person has innate knowledge, intuition, which helps to know the truth. The idealism and intuitionism of Wang Yang-ming had their numerous followers not only in China, but also in Japan, where this teaching has been around since the 17th century. became one of the main philosophical movements.

The philosophical views of Wang Yang-ming and his followers at one time brought a certain benefit to the fight against Neo-Confucian philosophy, which developed in the Song era and was transformed by its later representatives

into scholasticism.

However, Wang Yang-ming's political views reflected the interests of the feudal class, frightened by the powerful peasant movement of that time. Wang Yang-ming defended the policy of curbing the peasantry, strengthening the positions of the feudal lords, and led punitive expeditions against the peasants. He put forward proposals for the introduction of the “Law on ten-yards”, “Law on ten-yard elders”, etc., which regulated the life and behavior of peasants in public and private life. Wang Yang-ming's proposals were aimed at creating conditions under which any possibility of protest against feudal exploitation would be excluded.

The intense struggle between feudal lords and dependent peasants, the aggravation of contradictions within the ruling class were reflected in the field of ideology: in the 16th - 17th centuries. Progressive thought developed, fighting Neo-Confucian scholasticism. Its development was facilitated by the emergence of new social forces associated with the growth of cities, commodity-money relations and the emergence of manufacturing.

Representatives of the most progressive movements came from the working people, as well as from wealthy townspeople. The first should include Wang Yang-ming's contemporary - Wang Xin-zhai (1483 - 1541), his followers Yan Shan-nong, Liang Ru-yuan (aka He Xin-yin) and others, who were persecuted by the authorities. Their philosophical views did not differ sharply from the idealism and intuitionism of Wang Yang-ming. In his ethical views, Wang Xin-zhai was close to the ancient Chinese philosopher Mo Di (5th – 4th centuries BC) with his doctrine of “universal love.” Wang Hsin-chai and his followers put forward the utopian idea in those conditions of creating a society in which there would be no rich and poor, everyone would be equal. Li Zhi (or Li Zhuo-u, 1527 - 1602) should also be included in this group of progressive thinkers. He, like other progressive figures of his time mentioned above, was persecuted by the Ming dynasty. His teaching was declared heretical because it was

directed against the dominant ideology of Confucianism. Li Zhi opposed unconditionally recognizing as truth everything that Confucius claimed, he stated: “We cannot consider the truth or untruth of Confucius to be true or untrue.” Li Zhi's writings were repeatedly burned, and he himself was tortured to death.

Traditionalism, which was characteristic of the entire Chinese culture of the 17th - 18th centuries, in the field of philosophy was expressed in the desire to fit thoughts into familiar patterns, operate with long-established concepts, and rely on old written monuments. But since the interests of the Manchu rulers and feudal nobility collided on this basis with the aspirations of Chinese scientists who dreamed of overthrowing the power of foreigners and restoring national power, traditional philosophy began to reflect two opposing trends: one aimed at protecting the regime established under the Manchus, and the other , seeking to overthrow this regime.

The Manchu rulers quickly appreciated the benefits that could be derived from the Confucian philosophy of the Song era, especially the teachings of Zhu Xi (1130 - 1200), in which this philosophy received complete expression. This teaching was used by the Manchus to strengthen the feudal system. Song philosophy became the official doctrine of the regime.

Emperor Kangxi published “Sheng Yu” (“Holy Edict”), a set of provisions defining state ideology: this edict was repeated in a widespread form on behalf of the Qianlong Emperor. It contained the feudal principles of social relations, the political system, and the supreme power. Among the opposition part of Chinese society, a trend has formed that is clearly hostile to the Sung school. At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, Huang Tsung-hsi, one of the greatest thinkers in China in the 17th century, who took an active part in the fight against the Manchu conquerors, even traveling to Japan to urge the Japanese to oppose the Manchus, criticized the most important thesis of Sung political theory - about unlimited the power of the ruler. Huang Tsung-si said that the relationship between the ruler and the people is not absolute, but conditional, that “the rights and responsibilities of the ruler are determined by the interests of the people.”

Other thinkers fought against Sung philosophy, reproaching it for its abstractness and departure from practice. The thesis about the need for philosophy to proceed from life practice became the main one for many oppositional trends in social thought in the 17th – 18th centuries. One of the first to proclaim this thesis was the mentioned scientist Gu Yan-wu, who called for drawing knowledge from two sources: from reality and from literary materials.

III . Literature

During the Ming dynasty, the most important development in the field of literature was the continued development of scientific literature in the living, vernacular language - stories, dramas and roians. The most striking images of the novella are given in the collection “Amazing Stories of Our Time in Antiquity,” which appeared in the 30s and 40s. XVII century

Drama was enriched with a new genre - the local provincial or “southern” play, distinguished by its simplicity of presentation and accessibility of language. Such works include “The Moonlight Pavilion” and “Tales of the White Hare” - plays of the 14th century, still performed in China. From dramatic works of the 16th century. Of great interest is the dog Xian Tzu (1550 - 1617) - “The Peony Pavilion”, in which moral principles were challenged. Many playwrights also performed the roles of heroes in their plays. Although the profession of an actor was considered demeaning, the art of theater gained widespread popularity thanks to the existence of numerous home theaters.

The first novels - “The Three Kingdoms”, “River Pools”, written in colloquial language, date back to the 14th century, but later they appeared in more and more new versions.

In addition to the historical novel, fantasy and everyday novels appeared during the Ming dynasty. “Journey to the West” - a fantasy novel by Wu Cheng-en (1500 - 1582) - is based on legends about the journey to India of the famous Buddhist pilgrim of the 7th century. n. e. Xuan Zang. Famous everyday novelist of the late 16th century. – Wang Shi-zhen (1526 – 1593), a Ming scholar who rose to the post of head of the House of Punishments, which roughly corresponds to the position of the Minister of Justice at the present time.

In the XVII – XVIII centuries. The control of the Manchu government practically did not extend to the field of fiction, which, in turn, developed in large cities. Its roots go back to the oral folk art of storytellers and the performances of street comedians. Back in the XIII - XVI centuries. oral storytelling and street performances led to the creation of novels and dramas. During the period of the Ming Empire, drama received great development: the plot became more complex, the number of characters introduced increased; the performance began to be divided into several acts (sometimes up to 10). In the XVII – XVIII centuries. It was this drama that was further developed. Many wonderful plays appeared, for example, the play by Kun Shang-zhan (1643) “Fan with a Peach Blossom” (“Tao Huashan”).

The novel continued to develop. In the 18th century Two novels arose that are among the most significant works of all the literature of feudal China: “The Dream of the Red Chamber” and “The Unofficial History of the Confucians.”

In the drama and novel of the Qing era, new social forces are visible, the development of which was delayed by the reactionary regime of Manchu rule, and a protest against the mores and morality of the feudal class is felt. “A Dream in the Red Chamber” is a novel from the life of a noble Manchu family. The novel contrasts free feeling with its purely human laws with the forced norms of feudal morality, which lowered the moral level of the human personality.

“The Unofficial History of the Confucians” is a broad canvas of social satire aimed at the most inert in society of that time - bureaucracy. The satire concerns the mechanism that creates bureaucracy: the system of government examinations as a tool for selecting officials, which turned people into dummies. At the end of the Qing period, this novel played a large role in anti-government propaganda.

From the largest literary work of the early 19th century. – Li Ru-zhen’s novel “Flowers in the Mirror” (1820) before the first poems of the poet Huang Tsun-hsien (1848 – 1905), dedicated to the Taiping uprising, lies a period of more than forty years of quest. Its significance in the development of culture is great: during these years new features began to appear, which in a more advanced artistic form were defined in Chinese literature only at the very end of the 19th century.

Among these new features, the revival of political and social poetry was of greatest importance. It is associated with the names of outstanding political figures: Lin Tse-hsu, Hong Hsiu-quan, Shi Da-kai. Many of them were active participants in the Taiping movement. Their poetic work was an attempt to bring poetry to the broad political arena and give it a voice in public life.

Poetry, cultivated in the conservative layers of Chinese society in the mid-19th century, was represented by the Tongcheng school and the Sung style school. The dominant position was initially occupied by the first of them; the second emerged somewhat later, in the process of fighting the Tongcheng movement, and gradually supplanted it, taking a strong place in the literature of the elite. The main aesthetic principle of both groups was to imitate ancient models (the Tongcheng school imitated the poetry of the Kang era; the Song style school imitated the poets of the Song era) and disdain for the social life of the country. The pillar of the Tongcheng school was the ardent reactionary, the executioner of the Taiping uprising, Tseng Kuo-fan. In the fight against the aesthetic views of the Tongcheng school, a “school of new poetry” was subsequently formed (in the late 90s of the 19th century), represented by patriotic poets.

Prose works of the mid-19th century were of much less importance. The reasons for this stem partly from the strictness of government censorship (poetry, unlike prose, was often distributed orally), and also from the fact that during the turbulent revolutionary era, major writers were absorbed in social struggle. Of significant interest is the autobiography of one of the leaders of the Taiping uprising, Li Hsiucheng, written by him in a Nanjing prison before his execution.

On Chinese literature of the mid-19th century. European influence had not yet had time to show itself: the first translations of Western works into Chinese appeared only at the end of the 19th century.

Mid-19th century was also marked by the emergence of modern periodical printing in China. The first periodicals were founded by Western missionaries. Soon the national Chinese press spun off from these publications, and managed to acquire a keen patriotic orientation. Figures of the patriotic movement took part in its creation: Lin Chiu-hsu, who published the magazine “Canton Notes” in Canton, the younger brother of the Taiping leader Hong Ren-gan, journalist Wang Tao and others. A special role was played by the activities of Wang Tao, a propagandist of scientific and political knowledge, an exposer of Chinese feudal society. For his association with the Taipings, he was declared an outlaw. Forced to flee to Hong Kong, he collaborated there on the newspaper Latest Events, and in 1872, together with Wu Tingfang and Chen Ai-ting, he founded the Chinese Daily Newspaper, which was very popular in South China. The emergence of the periodical press in China was significant both for the growth of the liberation movement and for the development of fiction.

IV . Art

Period XVI – XVII centuries. most richly represented by architectural monuments. Pagodas, tombs, palaces, temples, triumphal gates, various kinds of public buildings and, finally, residential buildings from this period have survived to this day. From the 16th century The architectural style is changing: the previous severity and monumentality is replaced by subtle grace. It is manifested in the widespread ornamentation of stucco cornices, in the appearance of various balustrades of marble bridges, and in the development of the architectural ensemble. A Kitats building, as a rule, is a one-story quadrangular pavilion divided by columns; it was distinguished by an original roof, high, curved at the corners and supported by pillars. The roof, covered with shiny colored tiles, the whiteness of the terraces and the bright painting of the wooden parts gave the building an extraordinary colorfulness and elegance.

Vivid examples of the architectural ensemble characteristic of the Ming period are the “forbidden city” (or “City of Imperial Palaces”) in the northern part of Beijing. This ensemble consists of several churches built between the 15th and 17th centuries.

Painting of the 16th – 17th centuries. did not take a big step forward - it maintained the same traditions. The works of famous artists of this time (Lu Chi, Bian Wen-ching, etc.), although distinguished by significant skill, were imitation of old models. Engraving was widely used to illustrate books. Colored woodcuts appeared for the first time in the world in the Ming Empire.

Great development in the 16th – 17th centuries. received applied arts: porcelain production, silk fabrics and lacquer products. New in porcelain production were the introduction of underglaze painting with cobalt blue, red glaze and the transition from the second half of the 15th century. from single-color to multi-color porcelain painting.

During the Ming period, works of European art entered China, but the influence of the latter on Chinese art was then insignificant. On the other hand, in the 17th century. Chinese art penetrates into Europe, its influence is reflected in ornamentation; In the future, the imitation of the Chinese style takes on wider dimensions.

The Manchu rulers carried out extensive construction, which contributed to the development of architecture. An idea of ​​this architecture is given by Beijing palaces, both within the former “Forbidden City” and outside, as well as the famous imperial mausoleums in Mukden (now Shenyang) - the cradle of the Qing dynasty. The city walls with monumental gates in them were restored and rebuilt. Government buildings were erected everywhere, Confucian mausoleums, Buddhist and Taoist temples were built. There was also extensive construction of residential buildings - palaces of the Manchu and Chinese nobility, high dignitaries, wealthy merchants, closely connected with the layout of gardens and parks.

Despite the scale of construction, the architecture remained largely unchanged, continuing the traditions of the Ming Empire. Chinese architects during the Qing dynasty developed with extreme completeness what was in the buildings of the 15th - 16th centuries. The grandeur of the size, the rare decorativeness are just beginning to emerge. Curved lines and all kinds of curls took precedence over straight lines and calm surfaces while maintaining the overall geometric harmony of the main building scheme. Architecture of China XVII – XVIII centuries. represents, as it were, a type of Kiai baroque, i.e. style characteristic of the era of late feudalism.

The arrangement and decoration of palaces, government buildings and rich houses increased the demand for products of applied art, and therefore the latter received significant development. The remarkable art of artistic casting is narrated by the bronze figures of lions, turtles, herons, dragons, and phoenixes that have survived to this day in Beijing palaces, as well as those that have ended up in museums in Europe and America. Among such objects, a special place is occupied by the “Bronze Palace” located in the Wanshoushan Palace - a structure that reproduces a palace-type building.

A thorough study of surviving examples of ancient foundry art is very characteristic of this era. This even led to the identification of a special branch of foundry art: the casting of products that reproduced samples of Zhou and Han bronze.

The development of the art of carving stone and bone, especially ivory, was caused by increased demand, but easier access to new material, in particular white jasper, delivered from the newly annexed East Turkestan, also played a significant role. In the art of carving, Chinese masters have achieved true virtuosity and artistic perfection. Various household items were decorated with carvings - tables, screens, incense burners, flower vases, musical instruments; Figures of people, birds, and animals were carved from jasper and bone. Products coated with varnish have received equally great development.

Embroidery constituted a special branch of artistic craft. The most famous were embroideries from Hunan province. The production of embroidery, like brocade, was encouraged by great demand from the wealthy part of the population, as well as abroad.

The most developed form was the production of porcelain. The government enterprise in Jingdezhen (in Jiangxi province) was technically well equipped, production was carried out on the basis of far-reaching differentiation of labor. It employed several thousand hired workers, earning wages much higher than at other similar enterprises. In essence, almost the entire working population of the town was associated with this production. According to descriptions of that time, the flames escaping from more than 3 thousand furnaces were visible from afar, creating the impression of a huge glow. Similar enterprises, only of a smaller size, existed in other places. Some of them belonged to the government, others to private individuals.

The demand for porcelain was enormous, and not only within the country. Chinese porcelain began to be exported to neighboring Asian countries, especially to places where, such as Indo-China, there was a large Chinese population; Porcelain products began to penetrate into Europe in increasing quantities, where they became the best decoration for palaces.

Wanting to improve their skills, Chinese masters did not look for new ways, but returned to old, already forgotten techniques. This is evidenced by the appearance of descriptions of various crafts and industries in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Chinese applied art, as it were, mobilized all its centuries-old experience, developed it on a huge scale, conquered the West with its high artistry, and reached the maximum of what applied art could achieve under the conditions of a feudal type of production.

Painting followed the same path during the Manchu period. She continued to develop the traditions that had developed during the Ming Empire. Traditional genres continued to be cultivated: the decorative genre of “flowers and birds,” the landscape of “mountains and water.” They were joined by the art of portraiture. The Manchu rulers preserved the “Garden of Painting,” the court Academy of Painting, but the Bogdykhans themselves did not particularly adhere to tradition and willingly attracted artists from among European missionaries. Some of them, such as the Italian Giuseppe Castiglione and the Austrian Ignatius Sickerpart, became court painters. They worked in a unique manner, combining European and traditional Chinese painting techniques. Sometimes European artists worked together with Chinese ones. This is a painting depicting a horseman and a person standing next to him: the figures of people and the horse in it belong to Castiglione, the entire background is by a Chinese artist.

Some new phenomena were observed in the landscape, in the “mountains and water” genre. The manner itself became more individual, more free, but there was no change in its essence.

Democratization, characteristic of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, also affected art.

From the end of the 18th century. salon plays gradually gave way to plays based on folk musical drama cultivated in Anhui province. By the middle of the 19th century. new plays are called “metropolitan drama” and become the main element of the Chinese national theater.

The development of painting and especially applied art, closely related to handicraft and handicraft production, was already influenced by European influence in the middle of the century. Folk craftsmen, who did not have the strength to compete with foreign goods within the country, were forced to work for export, adapting to the tastes and demands of foreigners. Skillful ivory carving, which for centuries was one of the most common types of artistic sculpture, is degenerating into the mass production of trinkets. Imitation and repetition of only the external aspects of ancient models inspire enthusiastic support from foreign “connoisseurs”. Combined with commercial interest and the desire to please the tastes of wealthy foreigners, this epigonism brings with it a coarsening of colors in still life, the replacement of genuine life with mediocre and soulless beauty, and heightened attention to color symbolism.

Porcelain production is gradually declining under the influence of foreign trade. In the middle of the 19th century. The most common type of design on porcelain remained blue underglaze painting, but its subjects (images of mountains with waterfalls, flowers, birds) were almost no longer borrowed by artists from nature, but were deliberately copied from old samples. Imitation became a custom to such an extent that the production time was not even indicated on the products; for commercial purposes they were often marked with the old brand.

The only type of fine arts that continued to develop progressively was folk painting - color engraving. In the middle of the 19th century. Social motives gradually began to penetrate into popular prints.

Conclusion

Chinese culture of all times has developed in conditions of various contradictions within the country, the establishment of domination and enslavement of China by capitalist states. But even in such conditions, culture continues to develop.

The surviving material and literary sources allow us to trace the development of Chinese religious and philosophical views and the emergence of socio-political systems. You can see how urban planning, architecture, and plastic art are developing; treasuries of poetry and prose are created; significant works of fine art appeared, including portraiture; A national form of theater was formed, and later musical drama. And the beauty of Chinese porcelain, embroidery, painted enamels, carved stone, wood, ivory in their elegance and artistic value claim to be one of the leading places among similar products in the world. Naturally, scientific achievements in the fields of education, astronomy, magnetism, medicine, printing, etc. were also significant. Success has been achieved in economic development and expansion of foreign relations.

The culture of China had a great influence, first on the development of the culture of numerous neighboring peoples who inhabited the vast territories of later Mongolia, Tibet, Indo-China, Korea and Japan. Later on a large number of the leading powers of the medieval world. Chinese culture has made a significant contribution to the development of world culture. Its originality, high artistic and moral value speak of the creative talent and deep roots of the Chinese people.

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Ancient China is the most ancient culture, which has practically not changed its way of life to this day. Wise Chinese rulers were able to lead a great empire through the millennia. Let's take a quick look at everything in order.

Ancient humans probably reached East Asia between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. Currently, pieces of pottery, ceramics have been discovered in a Chinese hunter-gatherer cave, the estimated age of the cave is 18 thousand years, this is the oldest pottery ever found.

Historians believe that agriculture appeared in China around 7,000 BC. The first harvest was a grain called millet. Rice also began to be grown around this time, and perhaps rice appeared a little earlier than millet. As agriculture began to provide more food, the population began to increase, and it also allowed people to do other jobs other than constantly searching for food.

Most historians agree that Chinese civilization formed around 2000 BC around the Yellow River. China was home to one of the four early civilizations. China is different from other civilizations, the culture that developed has remained to this day, of course, changes have occurred over the millennia, but the essence of the culture has remained.

The other three civilizations disappeared or were completely absorbed and assimilated by new people. For this reason, people say that China is the oldest civilization in the world. In China, families who controlled land became leaders of family governments called dynasties.

Dynasties of China

The history of China from ancient times to the century before last was divided into different dynasties.

Xia Dynasty

The Xia Dynasty (2000 BC-1600 BC) was the first dynasty in Chinese history. Her period lasted about 500 years and included the reign of 17 emperors - the emperor is the same as the king. The Xia people were farmers and possessed bronze weapons and pottery.

Silk is one of the most important products China has ever created. Most historians agree that the Xia Dynasty produced silk clothing, with silk production possibly beginning much earlier.

Silk is produced by extracting the cocoons of silk insects. Each cocoon produces one silk thread.

Not all historians agree that the Xia was a true dynasty. Some believe that the history of Xia is just a mythical story because some points do not correspond to archaeological discoveries.

Shang Dynasty

The Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC) was originally a clan living along the Yellow River during the Xia Dynasty. A clan is a group of very close families that are often viewed as one large family. The Shang conquered the Xia land and gained control of Chinese civilization. The Shang Dynasty lasted over 600 years and was led by 30 different emperors.

The Shang were the oldest Chinese civilization to leave behind written records, which were inscribed on tortoise shells, cattle bones, or other bones.

Bones were often used to determine what nature or nature wanted. If the emperor needed to know the future, such as “what kind of son the king will have” or “whether to start a war,” assistants carved questions on the bones, then heated them until they cracked. The lines of cracks told the wishes of the gods.

During the Shang Dynasty, people worshiped many gods, probably like the Greeks in ancient times. Also, ancestor worship was very important because they believed that their family members became godlike after death.

It is important to understand that other smaller Chinese families also existed in different parts of China at the same time as the Shang, but the Shang seem to have been the most advanced, as they left behind a lot of writing. The Shang were eventually defeated by the Zhou clan.

Zhou Dynasty

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history. Due to the split in the dynasty, over time, Zhou was divided into parts called Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou.

The Zhou fought the invading armies from the north (the Mongols), they built large mounds of mud and stone as barriers that slowed down the enemy - this was the prototype of the Great Wall. The crossbow was another invention of this time - it was extremely effective.

During the Zhou, China's Iron Age began. Iron-tipped weapons were much stronger, and the iron plow helped increase food production.

All agricultural land belonged to the nobles (rich). The nobles allowed peasants to work the land, similar to the feudal system that developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.

The emergence of Chinese philosophy

During the Zhou Dynasty, two major Chinese philosophies developed: Taoism and Confucianism. The great Chinese philosopher Confucius developed a way of life called Confucianism. Confucianism says that all people can be taught and improved if one finds the right approach.

Key messages: People should focus on helping others; family is the most important value; the elders of society are the most revered. Confucianism is still important today, but it did not become widespread in China until the Han Dynasty.

The founder of Taoism was Laozi. Taoism is everything that follows “Tao,” which means “the way.” Tao is the driving force of all things in the Universe. The Yin Yang symbol is commonly associated with Taoism. Taoists believe that you should live in harmony with nature, be humble, live simply without unnecessary things and have compassion for everything.

These philosophies are different from religions because they do not have gods, although the idea of ​​ancestors and nature are often seen as gods. The emperor's power was also linked to religious beliefs. Zhou spoke of the Mandate of Heaven as the law that allowed Chinese emperors to rule—he said that the ruler was blessed by Heaven to rule over the people. If he has lost the blessing of heaven, he should be removed.

The things that proved that the ruling family had lost the Mandate of Heaven were natural disasters and rebellions.

By 475 B.C. The provinces of the Zhou kingdom were more powerful than the central Zhou government. The provinces rebelled and fought each other for 200 years. This period is called the Warring States period. Eventually, one family (the Qin) united all the others into one empire. It was during this period that the concept of Imperial China appeared.

Qin Dynasty

From 221 BC e. Before 206 BC e. The Qin dynasty gained control of civilized China. Qin's rule did not last long, but had an important impact on the future of China. The Qin expanded their territory and created the first empire of China. The brutal leader Qin Shi Huang declared himself the first true emperor of China. This dynasty created a standard currency (money), a standard for wheel axle sizes (to make roads all the same size), and uniform laws that applied throughout the empire.

Qin also standardized the various writing systems into one system used in China today. Qin Shi Huang enforced the philosophy of "Legalism", which focuses on people following laws and receiving instructions from the government.

Mongol invasions from the north were a constant problem in China. The Qin government ordered that the walls built earlier be combined. This is considered the beginning of the creation of the Great Wall of China. Each dynasty built a new wall or improved the wall of the previous dynasty. Most of the walls from the Qin period have now been destroyed or have been replaced. The wall that exists today was built by a later dynasty called the Ming.

An amazing tomb was made for the emperor, larger than a football field. It is still sealed, but legend has it that there are rivers of mercury inside it. Outside the tomb is a life-size clay army discovered in 1974.

The Terracotta Army has over 8,000 unique soldiers, over 600 horses, 130 chariots, as well as acrobats and musicians - all made from clay.

Although the Qin dynasty did not rule for long, its standardization of Chinese life left a profound influence on later dynasties in China. It is from this dynasty that we get the name "China". The first emperor of this dynasty died in 210 BC. e. He was replaced by a weak and small son. As a result, a rebellion began and a member of the Qin army took control of the Empire, which began a new dynasty.

Han Dynasty

The Han Dynasty began in 206 BC and lasted 400 years until 220 AD. and is considered one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. Like the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty is divided into Western Han and Eastern Han. Han culture defines Chinese culture today. In fact, most Chinese citizens today claim "Han" as their ethnic origin. The government made Confucianism the official system of the empire.

During this time, the empire grew greatly, conquering land in modern-day Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and even Central Asia. The empire grew so large that the emperor needed a larger government to rule it. Many things were invented during this time, including paper, steel, compass, and porcelain.

Porcelain is a very hard type of ceramic. Porcelain is made from special clay that is heated until it melts and becomes almost glass. Porcelain dishes, cups and bowls are often called "Chinese" because several hundred years ago all porcelain was produced in China.

The Han Dynasty was also known for its military might. The empire expanded westward to the edge of the Taklamakan Desert, allowing the government to police trade flows in Central Asia.

The caravan routes are often called the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. The Han Dynasty also expanded and strengthened the Great Wall of China to protect the Silk Road. Another important product of the Silk Road was the religion of Buddhism, which reached China during this period.

Chinese dynasties would continue to rule China until the Middle Ages. China has retained its uniqueness because from time immemorial they have honored their culture.

Interesting facts about Ancient China

China goes back a long way. It is distinguished by a wealth of spiritual and material values, as well as enormous vitality. Numerous revolts, wars and destruction committed by the conquerors did not break or weaken this civilization, did not destroy its basic values ​​and ideals.

Throughout history, the culture of ancient China tried to maintain its solidity and not lose activity. Each era left behind a huge legacy of original, diverse and unique monuments in beauty and craftsmanship. Creations of painting, architecture, architecture and crafts are priceless artifacts of the cultural heritage of this country.

The culture of ancient China in brief

Architecture

Along with the penetration of Buddhism into the territory of China (VI century BC), religious buildings - pagodas and rock monasteries - began to appear here. They consist of several hundred small and large grottoes located deep within the rock.

Since 1127, the first palaces, temples and monasteries were built. They are built mainly from wood, bamboo, clay, and reed.

During the reign of the Han Emperor, funerary complexes were actively erected, decorated with paintings, reliefs and decorated with statues of mythological animals.

Many architectural structures in China have one thing in common - these are raised roof corners, as a result of which the roof appears to be slightly bowed.

Sculpture

The emergence of this type of art is associated with the development of handicrafts. The Chinese create ceramic products and decorate them with colorful paintings in the form of grids, spirals and shells. Ritual vessels, funeral urns and other objects also appear.

The appearance of sculptures, items made of stone and bone, as well as bronze vessels decorated with gold and precious stones dates back to the 2nd century. BC. In the 4th century BC Active production of porcelain and lacquerware begins.

The artistic culture of ancient China reflects the main spiritual values ​​of Confucianism and Taoism:

• Spiritual perfection.
• The closeness of nature and man.
• Search for harmony in natural phenomena (animals, flowers, trees).

These ideals contributed to the formation of a unique culture of ancient China, permeated with ideas of a harmonious combination of the surrounding world and man. This is reflected in both calligraphy and painting.

In the traditional culture of China, writing is considered as a separate area of ​​aesthetics and ethics, because the individual, unique writing of hieroglyphs reflects the emotional experiences of the author. Since ancient times, calligraphic letters have been given magical meaning, which is why they are kept in every home. The Chinese believe that the hieroglyph is an ideal model of a work of art, since it combines simplicity of form, symbolism, depth and rigor.

One of the highest cultural achievements of this country is scroll painting. This new type of art is completely freed from decorative function; it is created exclusively for contemplation. The main genres in which they wrote on the scroll were portraits (everyday, historical), landscape, and the “flowers and birds” genre.

The Chinese portrait combines realistic authenticity and symbolism, slightly bordering on caricature. The paintings are distinguished by the fact that each object depicted on it is deeply symbolic. A flower, tree, bird or animal is characterized by a certain poetic image. So the pine tree symbolizes longevity, the stork symbolizes holiness and loneliness, and bamboo symbolizes happiness and perseverance. Traditional landscapes were created in an elongated form, helping to create a feeling of vast space.

All works of ancient Chinese art carry a moral meaning and the idea of ​​human self-improvement, encouraging one to admire the beauty of nature and the skillful work of the master. Apparently, this is why the beauty and expressiveness that the culture of ancient China carries within itself delights connoisseurs of beauty. It opens up a new vision of the world and a new aesthetics.

Writing of ancient China

The development of writing as part of the culture of ancient China can briefly be directly linked to inventions made at the beginning of time. The fact is that the first writing instruments were a bamboo tablet and a pointed stick. But the invention of silk, brushes and ink made the writing process more convenient and comfortable, the next impulse was the invention of paper. In the 15th century BC, about 2,000 hieroglyphs were used in the Celestial Empire to consolidate thoughts in writing. These hieroglyphs still form the basis of the writing system of modern China.

Literature of Ancient China

Thanks to developed writing, many literary monuments of ancient China have reached our times, for example, the “Book of Songs,” compiled approximately in the 1st millennium BC. AD and containing 300 works. Thanks to the written monuments that have come down to us, the famous names of the first poet of Chinese civilization, Qu Yuan, historians Sima Qian and Ban Gu, whose works for a long time in the development of Chinese culture in ancient times became a kind of standard for historical literature and classical Chinese prose.

Architecture, painting, applied arts

The Chinese, already in the 1st millennium BC, knew how to build buildings with several floors. The design was simple: a support made of wooden pillars, a roof covered with baked clay tiles. The peculiarity of such roofs was manifested in the edges curved upward, this style is called a pagoda. The Song-yue-si pagoda and the “Great Wild Goose Pagoda” have survived to our times. The level of development of architecture and construction is evidenced by the fact that by the 3rd century BC more than 700 palaces were built for the emperor and his entourage. In one of the palaces a hall was built in which 10,000 people could gather at the same time.
Synchronously with the development of architecture, painting and applied arts also developed. A feature of the development of painting was the use of ink for drawing on paper and silk.
The carved figurines made of jade and ivory that have survived to this day cannot but arouse admiration. The development of artistic ceramics became the forerunner of the appearance of porcelain.

Development of science in ancient China

Science as part of the cultural heritage of ancient China can be briefly described as a list of achievements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Mathematicians of ancient China studied and described the properties of a right triangle, introduced the concept of negative numbers, studied the properties of fractions, described arithmetic progression, and developed methods for solving systems of equations.
In the 1st century BC, scientists of ancient China wrote a treatise “Mathematics in Nine Chapters”, which collected all the knowledge accumulated in the Celestial Empire.
The development of mathematics, accordingly, gave impetus to the development of astronomy in the 2nd millennium BC. the year in the Middle Kingdom was divided into 12 months, and the month, respectively, into 4 weeks (i.e., exactly the same as in our time). Astronomer Zhang Heng, in the 2nd century BC, created a celestial globe depicting the movement of luminaries and planets.
The development of knowledge in various fields of science led to the fact that in the Middle Kingdom a compass was invented and a water pump was invented and manufactured.

Music

At the turn of the century, the treatise “Yueji” was written in China; it summarized the ideas of ancient China about music. The beginning of musical development occurred in the 1st millennium BC. A training system for musicians and dancers was organized. For this purpose, the Yuefu court fee was created. She was involved, among other things, in regulating the writing and performance of musical works. The musical culture of ancient China, in short, was under the control of the emperor.

From 1966 to 1976, the country underwent a Cultural Revolution, during which traditional Chinese culture was banned and destroyed. Since the 1980s, the Chinese government abandoned this policy and began to revive traditional culture. Modern Chinese culture is a mixture of traditional culture, communist ideas and post-modern influences associated with globalization processes.

Architecture

Chinese architecture is as old as the entire Chinese civilization. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a significant influence on the building technologies of Vietnam, Korea and Japan. In the 20th century, Western construction technologies spread in China, especially in cities. Traditional Chinese buildings rarely exceed three stories, and the demands of urbanization have resulted in modern Chinese cities having a Western appearance. However, in the suburbs and villages they often still build using traditional technologies.

Traditional Chinese buildings are characterized by bilateral symmetry, which symbolizes balance and equilibrium. Chinese buildings occupy the maximum of the territory allocated for them, the free space is inside the building in the form of courtyards.

Inside the building there are separate buildings connected by covered galleries. The system of patios and covered galleries has a practical value - it protects from the heat. Chinese buildings are characterized by their width, unlike Europeans, who prefer to build upward.

The buildings inside the building are placed hierarchically: the most important ones are located along the central axis, the less important ones are at the edges, the older family members live on the far side, the younger ones and servants live in the front, at the entrance.

The Chinese are characterized by geomancy, or feng shui. In accordance with this set of rules, the building is built with the back to the hill, and the front to the water, there is an obstacle behind the front door, since the Chinese believe that evil travels only in a straight line, talismans and hieroglyphs are hung around the building, attracting happiness, good luck and wealth.

Traditionally built from wood in China, stone buildings have always been rare. Load-bearing walls are also rare; the weight of the roof is usually carried by wooden columns. The number of columns is usually even, it allows you to create an odd number of compartments, and place the entrance exactly in the center.

Wooden structures with a minimum of load-bearing parts are much more resistant to earthquakes. There are three types of roofs: flat sloping roofs are found on the houses of common people, those with a stepwise changing slope are used for more expensive buildings, and smooth roofs with raised corners are the privilege of temples and palaces, although they are also found on the houses of the rich.

The roof ridge is usually decorated with carved figures made of ceramics or wood, and the roof itself is covered with tiles. Walls and foundations were built from rammed earth or brick, less often - from stone.

Painting and calligraphy

Traditional Chinese painting is called Guohua (national painting). In imperial times there were practically no professional artists; aristocrats and officials painted at their leisure.

They painted with black paint and a brush made of animal wool on silk or paper. The paintings were scrolls that were hung on the walls or kept rolled up. Often, poems written by the artist and related to the image were written on the painting. The main genre was landscape, which is called Shanshui (mountains and water).

The main thing was not realism, but the transfer of the emotional state from contemplation of the landscape. Painting flourished during the Tang Dynasty, and was perfected during the Song Dynasty. Song artists began to paint blurry distant objects to create the effect of perspective, as well as the disappearance of outlines in the fog.

During the Ming Dynasty, narrative paintings came into fashion. With the communists coming to power, the genre of socialist realism, depicting the life of workers and peasants, reigned in painting. In modern China, traditional painting coexists with modern Western styles.

Calligraphy (Shufa, the laws of writing) is considered the highest form of painting in China. Calligraphy involves the ability to hold a brush correctly and choose ink and writing material wisely. During calligraphy classes, they try to copy the handwriting of famous artists.

Literature

Chinese literature has a history of more than three thousand years. The first deciphered texts are fortune-telling inscriptions on turtle shells from the Shang Dynasty. Fiction has traditionally been of secondary importance.

The classic literary canon is considered to be the collections of Confucian ethical and philosophical books: the Pentateuch, the Four Books and the Thirteen Books. An excellent knowledge of the Confucian canon was a prerequisite for passing examinations for government positions. Traditional dynastic chronicles are of great importance.

After a new dynasty came to power, starting with the Han, scientists compiled a detailed chronicle of the reign of the previous dynasty. Twenty-four stories are a collection of such chronicles. There is also the Heptateuch - a collection of works on the art of war, the most famous of which is “The Art of War” by Sun Tzu.

During the Ming Dynasty, entertaining novels became popular. An example of Chinese prose are the Four Classic Novels: "The Three Kingdoms", "The Pools", "Journey to the West" and "The Dream of the Red Chamber". In 1917-1923 the New Cultural Movement appeared.

Its writers and poets, in order to be more understandable, began to write in colloquial Chinese, Baihua, instead of Wenyang, or ancient Chinese. The founder of modern Chinese literature is Lu Xun.

Music

In ancient China, the social status of musicians was lower than that of artists, but music played an important role. One of the books of the Confucian canon is Shi Jing - a collection of folk songs. With the communists coming to power, genres such as revolutionary songs, marches and anthems appeared.

The traditional Chinese musical scale consists of five tones, and there are also 7- and 12-tone scales. According to Chinese tradition, musical instruments are divided according to the material of the sounding element: bamboo, clay, wood, stone, leather, silk, metal.

Theater

Classical Chinese theater is called Xiqu, which combines singing, dancing, stage speech and movement, as well as elements of circus and martial arts. The Xiqu Theater appeared in its rudimentary form during the Tang Dynasty (7th century AD).

Different provinces developed their own versions of traditional theater. The most famous of them is the Beijing Opera - Jingjiu. The Xiqu Theater continued to develop and change both in the Republic of China and after the communists came to power.

Cinema

The first film show in China took place in 1898, the first Chinese film was shot in 1905. Until the 1940s, Shanghai remained the main cinematic center of the country, the film industry developed with the help of the United States and experienced strong American influence.

With the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the film industry developed rapidly. Before the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution, 603 feature films and 8,342 documentaries were produced. A wide variety of animated films have been produced to entertain and educate children. During the Cultural Revolution, cinema was severely restricted, many old films were banned, and few new ones were made.

In the new millennium, Chinese cinema is influenced by the traditions of Hong Kong and Macau, after their annexation to China. A large number of joint films are being filmed. In 2011, China's film market amounted to $2 billion and, ahead of India and the UK, came in third place in the world after the USA and Japan.

Martial arts

Chinese martial arts are not techniques of fighting with or without weapons, but a complex of various cultural phenomena. In addition to hand-to-hand and armed combat techniques, Chinese martial arts include various health practices, sports, acrobatics, methods of self-improvement and psychophysical training, elements of philosophy and ritual as a way to harmonize the relationship between man and the world around him.

Chinese martial arts are called Wu Shu, or Kung Fu. The main centers of Wushu development are the Shaolin and Wudangshan monasteries. The battle is carried out hand-to-hand, or with one of 18 traditional types of weapons.

Kitchen

There are many culinary schools and trends in China. Each province has its own cuisine, almost every city or town has its own specialties. The most famous and influential culinary schools are Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong and Sichuan.

Holidays

There are many holidays and festivals in China, both traditional and modern. The main holiday in China is New Year according to the traditional lunar calendar.

It occurs from January 21 to February 21, depending on the phases of the moon. Chinese New Year is officially celebrated for three days, but in fact it lasts two weeks or more. An important public holiday is the founding day of the People's Republic of China, October 1, which is also celebrated for three days. Since these two holidays merge with weekends, they are actually celebrated for up to seven days, these holidays are called “Golden Weeks”.

Other official holidays include New Year, Qingming Festival, Labor Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival. There are holidays for certain social groups: Women's Day, children's, youth and military days. The working day for these groups is reduced by half. Traditional holidays of national minorities are non-working days in national autonomies.