Before starting work related to electricity, you need a little "shod" theoretically in this matter. To put it simply, usually under the electricity is meant this movement of electrons under the influence of the electromagnetic field. The main thing is to understand that electricity is the energy of the smallest charged particles that move within the conductors in a certain direction.

D.C   practically does not change its direction and magnitude in time. Suppose, in a conventional battery, a constant current. Then the charge will flow from minus to plus, without changing, until it runs out.

Alternating current   is a current that changes direction and magnitude with a certain periodicity.

Present the current as a stream of water flowing through the pipe. After a certain period of time (for example, 5 seconds), water will rush to one side or the other. With the current, this happens much faster - 50 times per second (frequency 50 Hz). During one oscillation period, the current rises to a maximum, then passes through zero, and then the reverse process occurs, but with a different sign. When asked why this happens and why such a current is needed, it can be answered that receiving and transmitting alternating current   much easier than permanent.

The acquisition and transmission of alternating current is closely related to a device such as a transformer. A generator that generates alternating current is much simpler in design than a constant current generator. In addition, to transfer power over a long distance, alternating current fits best. With it, less energy is lost.

Using a transformer (a special device in the form of coils), alternating current is converted from low voltage to high voltage and vice versa, as shown in the illustration. It is for this reason that most devices operate from a network in which the current is variable. However, direct current is also used quite widely - in all types of batteries, in the chemical industry and some other areas.

Many have heard such cryptic words as one phase, three phases, zero, ground or earth, and know that these are important concepts in the world of electricity. However, not everyone understands what they mean and what relation they have to the surrounding reality. Nevertheless, it is necessary to know this. Do not go into technical details that are not needed home master, we can say that three-phase network   - this is such a method of transferring an electric current, when an alternating current flows through three wires, and one turns back. The above should be explained a little. Any electrical circuit   consists of two wires. One by one the current goes to the consumer (for example, to the kettle), and on the other comes back. If such a circuit is opened, then the current will not go. That's the whole description of the single-phase circuit.

The wire, by which the current goes, is called phase, or simply phase, and by which it is returned - zero, or zero. A three-phase circuit consists of three phase conductors and one reverse. This is possible because the phase of alternating current in each of the three wires is shifted relative to the neighboring one by 120 ° C. More details on this question will help answer the textbook on electromechanics. Transmission of alternating current occurs precisely with the help of three-phase networks. It is economically advantageous - two more zero wires are not needed.

Approaching the consumer, the current is divided into three phases, and each of them is given by zero. So he gets to the apartments and houses. Although sometimes a three-phase network is planted directly into the house. As a rule, we are talking about the private sector, and this state of affairs has its pros and cons. This will be discussed later. Earth, or, more correctly, earth - the third wire in single-phase network. In fact, it does not carry a workload, but serves as a kind of safety device. This can be explained by an example. In the event that electricity goes out of control (for example, a short circuit), there is a risk of fire or electric shock. To prevent this from happening (that is, the current value should not exceed the level safe for humans and devices), grounding is introduced. Over this wire, the excess electricity in the literal sense of the word goes to the ground.

One more example. Let's say that there is a small breakdown in the operation of the electric motor of the washing machine and a part of the electric current falls on the outer metal shell of the device. If there is no ground, this charge will wander through washing machine. When a person touches it, it instantly becomes the most convenient exit for a given energy, that is, it will receive an electric shock. If there is a ground wire in this situation, the excess charge will drain on it, without harming anyone. In addition, it can be said that the neutral conductor can also be grounded and, in principle, it is, but only at a power plant. The situation when there is no ground in the house is unsafe. How to deal with it, without changing all the wiring in the house, will be told in the future.

Attention!

Some craftsmen, relying on the initial knowledge of electrical engineering, establish a neutral wire as grounding. Do not ever do that. If the ground wire is cut off, the housing of grounded devices will be 220V.

Fig. 1. The interaction of positive and negative charges of electricity

The author of this textbook was guided by old knowledge, according to which in wires can be present, both positive charges + (protons), and negative charges - (electrons). He does not know that the protons are deep in the nuclei of atoms. In the free state only protons of hydrogen atoms in electrolytic solutions can be located and this state is extremely short-term. But the authors of textbooks on physics and chemistry do not know this and continue to maim the intellectual potential of their students. Here is the text from the school textbook "Physics and Chemistry".

The same signs (+) and (-) are installed on the terminals of batteries, batteries, capacitors, diodes, rectifiers, etc. They are understood as positive and negative charges of electricity - protons and electrons. They also figure in the incalculable labors of physicists - theoreticians who are trying to describe their interactions in various physical phenomena and processes. But the era of theoretical arbitrariness and complacency is running out, as the chief judge of the reliability of physical theories has already entered into his rights. It is not far off that day when a high school student, trained to check the reliability of the theoretical result with the help of the Unity axiom, can easily establish that a unitary quantum theory contradicts this axiom. This is enough to leave her alone on the shelf of the history of science.

So, the rectifier, included in the circuit of alternating voltage and current, forms at the output plus and minus. Dear physics theorists! How do you mean to understand this?

After all, the simultaneous presence in the wires of protons and electrons automatically leads to the formation of hydrogen atoms, which exist only in the plasma state at a temperature of more than 5000 degrees. From this it follows unambiguously that there are no free protons in the wires-carriers of positive charges, but only electrons. Why write on the terminals of capacitors, rectifiers, diodes plus and minus signs? After all, they are associated with positive and negative charges of electricity! But in wires with electric voltage there are no free protons - carriers of positive charges. How do you want to understand this confusion, which you put into the heads of students for the rest of your life ?! If you think that electrons come only to negative plates of capacitors, but do not come to positive ones (afraid, probably) and they remain free of charges, then why do you attribute a plus sign to them, which is associated with a positive charge of electricity - a proton? You trumpet in all your labors and textbooks that the electrons are moving along wires with constant voltage   from minus to plus. Interesting thing. Why, then, do they, according to your ideas, not move along the electrical circuit from the negative plate of the capacitor to the positive when it is charged ??? Why do you tolerate the abundance of these contradictions ??

Entertain your conflicting theoretical creations and ideas on your own, but do not impose them on the younger generation, which has the opportunity to test your "ingenious" theoretical constructs, not only with the axiom of Unity, but experimentally, with the simplest and oldest instrument, the compass.

It is known that electrons moving along a wire form a directed magnetic field around it. Since the arrow of the compass clearly responds to a change in the direction of the magnetic field, the indications of this ancient instrument are sufficient to determine the direction of motion of the electrons along the wire (Fig. 2).

In Fig. 2 shows electrical circuit, the direction of the wires of which are oriented with the plus ends to the south (S), and the negative directions to the north (N). In the absence of current in the wire, the direction of the arrows of the compasses A, B, C and D coincide with the direction of the right and left wires to the north N. When the current is turned on around the wire, a magnetic field arises and the compass arrows deviate.

When electrons move along the wire in the direction from the south (S) to the north (N), then the arrow of the compass A located above the wire is deflected to the right, and the arrow of the compass B located under the wire is to the left (Table 1).

Table 1. Angles of deviation of the arrows of compasses A and B at different currents (Figure 2)

From these elementary experimental results it follows that the magnetic field around the wire is twisted against the clockwise direction and has a magnetic moment.

Dear physics-theoreticians, it's time for you to know that the formation and behavior of an electron (Figure 3) are controlled by 23 constants. The presence of an electron model with a known direction of the vector of its magnetic moment (Figure 3) gives us reason to believe that the magnetic field around the wire is formed by a set of magnetic fields of free electrons oriented along the wire in such a way that the direction of the vectors of the magnetic moments of each electron coincides with the direction of the magnetic vector the moment of the field formed around the wire (Figures 2 and 4).

Fig. 3. a) scheme of the theoretical model of the electron

(only a part of the magnetic field lines is shown)

Fig. 4. The scheme of the motion of electrons in the wire from plus (+) to minus (-) and the formation at its ends of the southern (S) and northern (N) magnetic poles and magnetic field

around the wire

The same electrons (Figure 2), which move along the right wire from the north (N) to the south (S), form around it an oppositely directed magnetic field and the arrows of similar compasses C and D deviate opposite to the deviation of the arrows of compasses A and B (Fig. 2). It follows from the scheme of the magnetic field around the wire (Figure 4) that it can be formed only if the northern magnetic poles of the electrons (Figure 3) are directed upwards towards the negative end of the wire, and the southern ones - downwards, toward the plus end wires (Figure 4).

Thus, the experimental results presented in Fig. 2 and in Table. 1, show that the direction of the magnetic field formed around the wire coincides with the direction of rotation of the free electrons in it (Figs 2, 4), therefore the current direction coincides with the direction of motion of the electrons from plus to minus , .

The incontrovertibility of this fact was confirmed back in 1984 by another elementary experiment, set by the engineer A.K. Sukhval. He took a horseshoe magnet from an electromagnetic material with a magnetic field intensity of the order of 500 Oe and attached a probe of a sensitive microammeter to its poles, which began to show a current of the order of 0.10-0.20 μΑ (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Experiment of engineer A.K. Suhval

In this case, the positive probe of the microammeter was connected to the south pole of the S magnet, and the minus pole to the north N. This is a convincing proof of the movement of electrons through the wires of the microammeter from plus to minus, to be exact, from the southern magnetic pole to the north pole. We would like to note that we received this information on June 15, 2009, that is, much later than we described the process of electron motion from positive to negative and repeatedly published it.

Dear physics theorists and teachers, why do not you understand that imposing erroneous ideas on the fact that electrons move in wires from negative to positive and that the current flows in the opposite direction is an intellectual crime?

So, the directions of the lines of force of the magnetic field formed around the wire with the current correspond to an orientation of the free electrons in it, at which they move from plus to minus, orienting themselves so that the southern poles of the magnetic fields of electrons turn out to be directed toward the plus end of the wire, to the minus one (Figure 2, 4).

This simple, easily reproducible experiment clearly demonstrates that if the power source is a battery or a battery, then the electrons move by wire   from the plus (Fig. 2, 4) to the minus. Such a picture fully agrees with the structure of electrons (Figure 3) and unambiguously proves that the free electrons of a wire with constant voltage are rotated by the southern magnetic poles to the positive end of the wire, and the northern ones to the negative one. In this case, the presence of free protons in the wires is not required to form a positive potential, since the free electrons of the wire form on their ends not dissimilar electrical charges, but opposite magnetic poles.

From the new ideas about the behavior of electrons in the wire, it is necessary to replace the notions of the positive and negative ends of the wires of the network with a constant voltage at the ends with the north and south magnetic poles. However, the process of realizing this need will be lengthy. But it, as we shall see, is inevitable, since a deeper understanding of real electrodynamic processes is impossible without new conventions in the designation of the ends of electric wires.

Thus, the elementary experimental information that we have given allows us to formulate the first assumptions (postulates) about the structure of an electron and its motion along a wire. For this, let's pay attention to the fact that the experimental wire is oriented from the south (S) to the north (N) and the south end of this wire is connected to the plus (+) terminal of the generator (G) of direct current or to the positive terminal of the rectifier.

So, we formulate postulates. The first is electrons, they move along the wire not from plus (+) to minus (-), as was thought, but from the south terminal to the north terminal. Second, electrons have a rotating electromagnetic structure. The third - the electrons rotate counter-clockwise and have their own magnetic moments. The fourth - the magnetic fields of moving and rotating free electrons in the wires form a total magnetic field, which goes beyond the limits of the wire. The direction of the vector of the magnetic moment around the wire coincides with the directions of the vectors of the magnetic moments of the electrons (Fig. 4).

And now we'll conduct an experiment to charge and discharge the capacitor. The orientation of the wires and electric signs of the potentials at their ends remains the same and see where the electrons move, charging the capacitor (Fig. 5).

2. Charge the dielectric capacitor

The error of the existing interpretation of the operation of the capacitor is especially obvious. It is based on the presence in the electrical circuit of positive and negative charges. The carriers of these charges are known: a proton and an electron. However, it is also known that they feel the presence of each other at a distance of a thousand times the size of an electron and a million times larger than the size of a proton. Even such a distant neighborhood ends with the formation of hydrogen atoms, which exist only in the plasma state at a temperature of more than 5000 C. This occurs, for example, in the processes of removing electrons and protons from the sun and then combining them into hydrogen atoms. So the simultaneous presence of protons and electrons in the free state in conductors is completely excluded, so the positive and negative potentials on the plates of the dielectric capacitor are the error of physicists. Let's correct it.

Now we will see that the plates of the dielectric capacitor are charged not by the opposite electrical polarity, but by a different magnetic polarity. In this case, the plus functions belong to the southern magnetic pole of the electron, and the minus functions to the north pole (Fig. 3). These poles also form a polarity, but not an electrical one, but a magnetic one. Let us trace the process of charging a dielectric capacitor to see how the magnetic poles of an electron form the magnetic polarity of its plates. It is known that an insulator D is located between the platinum of the dielectric capacitor (Fig. 5).

The scheme of the experiment on charging a dielectric capacitor is shown in Fig. 5, a. The most important requirement for the scheme is its orientation from the south (S) to the north (N) so that positive signs of electrical potentials are in the south, and negative - in the north. To ensure complete isolation of the capacitor from the network after charging, it is advisable to use electric plug, briefly included in the outlet of the network with a voltage of 220 V.

Immediately after the diode d, the compass 1 (K) is placed on the wire to the capacitor C. The arrow of this compass, deflecting to the right when the plug is turned on, shows the direction of the movement of electrons (Figure 5, a) from point S to the bottom plate of the capacitor, which has a minus sign.

Fig. 5 . a) the scheme of our experiment of charging the capacitor;

B) the scheme of realization of this experiment by American scientists

It is appropriate to draw attention to the generality of information on the behavior of electrons in the wires shown in Fig. 2, 4, and 5. Above the compass 1 (Figure 5) shows the scheme of the direction of the magnetic field around the wire formed by electrons moving in it. This scheme is similar to the diagrams shown in Fig. 2.

Scientists from the University of California at Santa Barbara offered their interpretation of charging a capacitor in which, when applying electrical voltage, its plates would not only accumulate electric charge of electrons, but also, they believe, their spin.

The back () capacitor (Figure 5, b) - the dielectric material (marked in blue) is sandwiched between the plates of ferromagnetic material (indicated in yellow). Red shows the density of spin-polarized electrons, which reaches the maximum of the value at the interfaces and opposite in sign on opposite capacitor plates.

The Americans report that this effect is still the result of numerical modeling, but few doubt its existence, since the methods of calculations have reached such a level of development that they begin not only to explain the experimental results, but also to predict new effects. In addition, in favor of the existence of the described phenomenon, the effect of a magnetically tunable electric field that has been recently discovered in electrochemical cells with ferromagnetic electrodes suggests.

Dear physics theorists, the results of the Russian elementary experiment proving that both plates of the capacitor are charged by electrons, and its mathematical modeling by American scientists, coincide. Denying this fact, which destroys your theory, is equivalent to fighting a windmill.

Thus, electrons that have passed through the diode come to the lower plate of the condenser, oriented by the spin and magnetic moments vectors to its internal surface (Fig. 5, a). As a result, the northern magnetic potential (N) is formed on this surface.

It is quite natural that electrons to the inner surface of the upper plate of the capacitor come from the network, oriented by the southern magnetic poles (S). The proof of this is the experimental fact of the deviation of the arrow of the upper compass 2 (K) to the right (Fig. 5a). This means that electrons moving from the network to the upper plate of the condenser are oriented by the southern magnetic poles (S) in the direction of motion (Figure 6).

Fig. 6. Diagram of the motion of electrons to the plates of a dielectric capacitor

Thus, the orientation of the electrons on the plates of the dielectric capacitor ensures the permeability of their magnetic fields through the dielectric D (Fig. 5). The potential on both plates of the capacitor is one negative and two magnetic polarities: the northern polarity, which the old physical theory ascribes the minus sign, and the southern one, which the obsolete physics attributes to the pole and warns us that this convention corresponds to the absence of electrons on this capacitor plate.

In Fig. 6 is a diagram explaining the orientation of electrons moving to the plates of capacitor C. Electrons come to the bottom plate of the condenser, oriented by the northern magnetic poles (N) to its inner surface (Fig. 6). Electrons oriented to the inner surface of the upper plate of the condenser are oriented by the southern magnetic poles (S).

So the electrons - the only carriers of electricity in the wires form on the plates of the capacitor are not dissimilar electrical polarity, but a different magnetic polarity. There are no protons on the plates of the dielectric capacitor - carriers of positive charges.

3. Discharge of the dielectric capacitor

The process of discharging a dielectric capacitor to a resistance is the next experimental proof of the correspondence between the reality of the revealed model of the electron (Figure 3) and the erroneousness of the established ideas that dissimilar electric charges are formed on the plates of a dielectric capacitor (Fig.

The deviation scheme of the arrows of the compasses (K) 1, 2, 3 and 4 when the capacitor is discharged to the resistance R at the moment of switching on the switch 5 is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 8. Diagram of the motion of electrons from the plates of the capacitor to the resistance R

when the dielectric capacitor is discharged

As can be seen (Figures 6 and 7), at the moment of switching on the process of discharge of the capacitor, the magnetic polarity on the plates of the capacitor changes to the opposite one and the electrons turn around and begin to move toward the resistance R (Fig. 7, 8).

The electrons coming from the upper plate of the capacitor are oriented by the southern magnetic poles in the direction of motion, and from the lower - by the north ones (Fig. 8). Compasses 3 and 4, mounted on a set of VA wires oriented from south to north, clearly fix this fact by deflecting the arrows to the right, proving that the spin and magnetic moments of all electrons in these wires are directed from south to north (Figure 7, 8) .

Dear physics theorists, I have described to you a scanty part of the electrodynamics of the microcosm, of which you do not have an elementary idea. It's time to come to your senses and begin to study the electrodynamics of the microworld, in which the physics of the following processes and phenomena is described in detail:

1. A model of a photon whose formation and behavior is controlled by 7 constants is revealed, and all the parameters of this photon vary in the interval of 15 orders of magnitude.

2. The model of an electron, a carrier of a negative electric charge, is determined, the formation and behavior of which are controlled by 23 constants.

3. The model of a proton, a carrier of a positive electric charge, has been identified, all parameters of which, theoretically determined, coincide with their experimental values.

4. The physics of the following electrodynamic processes is described in detail: the motion of electrons along wires with constant and alternating voltage, the motion of electrons through the diode, charging and discharge of the capacitor, the operation of the oscillatory circuit: the capacitor-inductance, the formation of an electric spark in a wire break and its behavior in magnetic fields with different polarities, the photoelectric effect and the Compton effect, the operation of a radio lamp, the transmission and reception of electronic information, the formation relic radiation and neutron stars and much more,.

CONCLUSION

It is a pity, of course, that the state does not have a system to protect young people from imposing on it scientists and educators erroneous knowledge that maims the youth's intellectual potential.

Literature

1. Kasyanov V.A. Physics. Grade 10. Bustard. M. 2005.

2. Gurevich AE, Isaev DA, Pontak LS Physics and chemistry. A textbook for grades 5-6. "Bustard". M. 2007. 192 pp.

3. Kanarev F.M. The beginning of physiology of the microworld. 12th edition. Volume I. Krasnodar 2009. 687 p.

4. Kanarev F.M. The beginning of physiology of the microworld. 12th edition. Volume II. Krasnodar 2009. 448 pp. http://kubagro.ru/science/prof.php?kanarev

5. Suhval A.K. Two experiments with a magnetic field. Journal of Chemistry and Life, No. 3, 1988, from 27.

  Basic concepts in electrical engineering

Alternating current is a current that changes the direction of movement and magnitude with a certain periodicity.

Present the current as a stream of water flowing through the pipe. After a certain period of time (for example, 5 seconds), water will rush to one side or the other. With the current, this happens much faster - 50 times per second (frequency 50 Hz). During one oscillation period, the current rises to a maximum, then passes through zero, and then the reverse process occurs, but with a different sign. When asked why this happens and why such a current is needed, it can be answered that the receipt and transmission of alternating current is much simpler than constant.

The acquisition and transmission of alternating current are closely related to a device such as a transformer (Figure 1.2). A generator that generates alternating current is much simpler in design than a constant current generator. In addition, to transfer power over a long distance, alternating current fits best. With it, less energy is lost.

Fig. 1.2.   Transformer at the substationlowers the voltage from the high-voltage linefor transmission to the domestic network

With the help of a transformer (a special device in the form of an aunice), alternating current is converted from a low voltage to a high voltage and vice versa, as shown in the illustration (Figure 1.3).

It is for this reason that most devices operate from a network in which the current is variable. However, direct current is also used quite widely - in all types of batteries, in the chemical industry and some other areas.

Many have heard such cryptic words as one phase, three phases, zero, ground or earth, and know that these are important concepts in the world of electricity. However, not everyone understands what they mean and what relation they have to the surrounding reality. Nevertheless, it is necessary to know this.

Without going into technical details that the home master does not need, we can say that a three-phase network is such a method of transferring an electric current when an alternating current flows through three wires, and one goes back. The above should be explained a little. Any electrical circuit consists of two wires. One by one the current goes to the consumer (for example, to the kettle), and on the other comes back. If such a circuit is opened, then the current will not go. That's the whole description of the single-phase circuit (Figure 1.4).

The wire through which the current flows is called the phase conductor, or simply the phase, and by which it is returned, it is zero, or zero. A three-phase circuit consists of three phase conductors and one reverse. This is possible because

the phase of alternating current in each of the three wires is shifted relative to the neighboring one by 120 ° C (Figure 1.5). More details on this question will help answer the textbook on electromechanics.

Fig. 1.5.   Three-phase circuit scheme

Transmission of alternating current occurs precisely with the help of three-phase networks. It is economically advantageous - two more zero wires are not needed. Approaching the consumer, the current is divided into three phases, and each of them is given by zero. So he gets to the apartments and houses. Although sometimes a three-phase network is planted directly into the house. As a rule, we are talking about the private sector, and this state of affairs has its pros and cons. This will be discussed later.

Earth, or, more correctly, earth, is the third wire in a single-phase network. In fact, it does not carry a workload, but serves as a kind of safety device.

This can be explained by an example. In the event that electricity goes out of control (for example, a short circuit), there is a risk of fire or electric shock. To prevent this from happening (that is, the current value should not exceed the level safe for humans and devices), grounding is introduced. Over this wire, excess electricity in the literal sense of the word goes to the ground (Figure 1.6).

One more example. Let's say that there is a small breakdown in the operation of the electric motor of the washing machine and a part of the electric current falls on the outer metal shell of the device. If there is no ground, this charge will wander the washing machine. When a person touches it, it instantly becomes the most convenient exit for a given energy, that is, it will receive an electric shock. If there is a ground wire in this situation, the excess charge will drain on it, without harming anyone. In addition, it can be said that the zero conductor can also be grounded and, in principle, it is, but only at a power plant.

The situation when there is no ground in the house is unsafe. How to deal with it, without changing all the wiring in the house, will be told in the future.

ATTENTION!

Some craftsmen, relying on the initial knowledge of electrical engineering, set the ground wire as grounding. Do not ever do that. If the ground wire is cut off, the housing of grounded devices will be 220 V.